Roman gold coin 6 letters crossword puzzle. Coins of ancient Rome

During the era of the transition from the direct exchange of goods to the introduction of money circulation, the main means of payment was cattle. The memory of this time is preserved in the Roman name for money “pecunia” (from “pecus” - cattle). Subsequently, they began to pay for goods with rectangular copper bars, weighing about one and a half kilograms, and these, in turn, gave way to real coins, which appeared in Rome in the middle of the 5th century BC. Basic monetary unit there was a copper ass - an ingot of copper that weighed 1 Roman pound, or 1 libra (322.8 g), which was 12 ounces of 26.9 g each. It must be said that initially in different regions of Italy there were certain differences in the system of weights and measures. The so-called Oka pound, or libre (approximately 273 g), corresponded in weight, as can be seen from its name, to the “libral ace”. Gradually, throughout Italy, the Roman libra became the main measure of weight, so the ass, weighing 322.8 g, was designated by the letter “L”. As time passed, the Roman ace became lighter: its weight dropped to ¼ and even 1/6 pound. In the 1st century BC. The Romans began to say: “You have an ass, you are worth an ass!” (Petronius. “Satyricon”), meaning by ass an insignificant thing. Only from the 4th century BC. silver coins began to be minted in Rome.

Its appearance was associated with growing contacts between Rome and the Greek colonies in southern Italy, where money made from precious metals had long been in use. Around 340 BC. In Capua they began to issue silver coins for Rome according to the Greek model. These were didrachms - two-drachm coins weighing 7.58 g, later 6.82 g. The formal organization of coinage in the Republic occurred in 289 BC. with the establishment of a special board consisting of 3 people. Their first task was to issue asses and copper ingots still in circulation with the official seal stamped on them ("signata"). Silver coins - denarii and sesterces - began to be minted in Rome in 269 or 268 BC. At that time, a denarius weighed 4.48 g or 1/72 libra. During the era of the 2nd Punic War, the first gold coin- a scruple equal to 20 silver sesterces. In Rome, the workshop where money was minted was located near the Temple of Juno Moneta ("Warning"). This is where the word “coin” entered European languages. The most valuable source on the history of coinage in Rome is Pliny the Elder's Natural History (book 33, 42-48). He says that before the forced withdrawal of the troops of King Pyrrhus from Italy in 275 BC. the Roman people were blissfully ignorant of money from precious metals. There were no gold or silver coins, and only a copper ace, weighing 1 pound, was in circulation. In all calculations, money was measured by weight, so the warrior’s salary was called “scholarship” (from “pendo” - I weigh).

And subsequently, scales remained one of the attributes of a trade transaction. Thus, during mancipation - a formal procedure for transferring any property or slaves into the ownership of a new owner, the buyer, in the presence of witnesses, hit the scales with a piece of copper on the scales and then handed it over to the seller along with the required amount of money. Servius Tullius, one of the ancient Roman kings, introduced, according to Pliny, the custom of marking pieces of copper with a special state sign. Modern researchers attribute the emergence of this custom to the era of the Republic, to the 5th century BC. Images of livestock were minted on copper coins. Silver coins, Pliny reports, began to be issued only 5 years before the 1st Punic War. It was established that the denarius should weigh 10 pounds, the quinarius 5, and the sestertius 2 and a half. The lack of funds to wage the war with Carthage forced the Roman authorities to resort to damaging the coins and putting into circulation asses whose weight was 6 times less than before. This measure was successful and brought considerable benefits to the impoverished treasury. Using a stamp on copper coins, the head of the two-faced Janus was depicted on one side, and the bow of the ship on the other, while on small coins - triens and quadrans - the whole was placed. Bigas and quadrigas were stamped on the silver coins, hence the names of the coins “bigat” and “quadrigat”. Finally, in 104 BC, adds Pliny, Rome became acquainted with a new monetary unit, the victoriat, decorated with the image of the goddess Victoria. However, Pliny is wrong: the Romans began minting victoriat back in 268 BC, and 40 years later they opened a special mint on the island of Corcyra. These coins were issued there, equal in weight to ¾ of a denarius.

They were used mainly in trade relations with the Greek states, because they were equivalent to the Greek drachma and therefore facilitated mutual payments. In the internal money market of the Roman Empire, victoriat did not gain popularity for a long time and were considered more like a foreign currency. Only at the turn of the 2nd-1st centuries BC. The victoriat was equal to half a denarius and was henceforth to enter into circulation on the domestic market. Speaking about the minting of coins in the provinces, we note that some Greek cities within the empire retained the right to issue their own coins, and this was an important privilege for them, granted to them either by the emperor himself or by his governor in the province. This privilege meant recognition of the prominent political, economic and administrative role of the city and gave it greater independence in its internal affairs. In addition, allowing the city to have its own mint helped provide the province with the amount of small change it needed. By the time of the fall of the Republic, the Roman monetary system was largely shaken by the economic and political crisis. The basic unit of monetary accounting was still the sestertius, which retained this role until the 3rd century inclusive. The most common denomination remained the silver denarius, weighing 3 ⅔ scruples. Less common were its factions: quinarius, victoriat and sestertius (sestertius nummus). Gold coins were issued only occasionally, for example, Caesar issued them in 46-44 BC. gold coins worth 20 million denarii for distribution to the army and citizens. Of the bronze denominations, Ass. predominated. Anthony minted sestertii, dupondii, asses and semis. In general, the Roman Republican coinage system was based on silver and bronze denominations.

Monetary system of the Early Empire

Monetary reform of Augustus and the monetary circulation system under the Julio-Claudian dynasty

After Octavian came to power, he spent 31-27 BC. monetary reform. Its main content is the introduction into the systematic circulation of the gold coin “aurea” and changes in the circulation of the copper coin. As is known, the aureus was minted in the amount of 40 pieces from the libra and weighed 8.19 g. Before Augustus, it was minted only sporadically. The denarius remained unchanged and was knocked out in the amount of 84 pieces per pound, weighed 3.89 g, and was 3 3/7 scrupules of pure silver. The following changes occur in the circulation of copper coins. A more expensive type of copper alloy appears - aurihalk, from which sestertius weighing 27.3 g and dupondium weighing 13.36 g are minted. Three denominations are minted from bronze - ass weighing 10.92 g, semiss - 4.59 g, quadrans - 2, 7 years

Composition of denominations under Augustus:

Gold

Aurey = 2 gold quinaria = 25 denarii = 100 sesterces

Silver

Denarius = 2 silver quinarii = 50 sesterces

Aurichalcum

Sestertius = 2 dupondius = 4 asses = 16 quadrans

Bronze

1 ac = 4 quadrans

Monetary reform of Nero 64

There is a decrease in the weight of coins made of precious metals. The aureus was knocked out in the amount of 45 pieces from the libra and weighed 7.28 g, the weight of the denarius decreased to 3 scrupules and amounted to 3.41 g. The ratio between gold and silver remained the same. The most disastrous consequences were not the reduction in the weight of the coins, but their damage. Under Nero, the denarius began to include a small amount of ligature 15%. Nero minted 2 types of quadrants: from copper 3.08 g and aurichalcum 2.1 g.

Money circulation during the Civil War of 68-69

There are no significant changes. The weight of military minted coins remained the same. Aureas weigh 7.26 g (Galba), 7.24 g (Otho), 7.32 g (Vitellius). The weight of the sestertius decreased slightly, but Galba increased the size of the copper coins.

Flavian coinage

Under the Flavians, no decisive changes occur. A semis equal to half an assa is introduced into circulation. Some increase in the weight of coins occurs during the reign of Domitian in 82. The weight of the aureus rose from 7.25 to 7.58 g, the denarius from 3.18 to 3.32 g, the sestertius to 25.62, the assa to 11.05 g. Thus, his coins were the largest of the Flavians. The average weight of Flavian coins was as follows.

Composition of denominations under the Flavians:

Gold

Aurey - 7.41 g

Quinarium (half aureus) - 3.70 g

Silver

Denarius - 3.20 g

Quinarius (half a denarius) - 1.56 g

Kistofor - 10.18 g

Aurichalcum

Sestertius - 25.51 g

Dupondium - 12.88 g

Bronze

Ass - 10.90 g

Semis - 3.27 g

Quadrans - 2.22 g.

Coinage under the first Antonines

Composition of denominations under the first Antonines:

Gold

Aurey - 7.40 g

Quinarium (half aureus) - 3.60 g

Silver

Silver medallions (according to Mattingly):

7 denarii - 22.07 g

8 denarii - 25.36 g

12 denarii - 35.85 g

Denarius - 3.18 g

Quinarius (half a denarius) - 1.50 g

Kistofor - 10.06 g

Aurichalcum

Sestertius - 25.76 g

Dupondium - 12.94 g

Bronze

Ass - 9.73 g

Semis - 3.70 g

Quadrans - 2.10 g.

Monetary relations under Antoninus Pius and the last Antonines

There were no major changes. The aurei were minted according to the reduced Nero standard. The golden quinarium was issued irregularly, at long intervals. The denarius continued to lose weight and metal quality. The silver quinarium became rare during the reign of Antoninus Pius; it was found somewhat more often under Marcus and Commodus. Large gold and silver medallions are becoming very rare. Semis completely disappears from circulation. The quadrans was issued only under Antoninus Pius, and then disappeared after the semis. The minting of the dupondium continues; the external difference from the assa remains the radial crown. Under Commodus, the weight of coins decreases. This contributed to the rise in prices at the end of his reign, despite all the measures he took. In the coinage of Commodus, denarii weighing only 2.83-2.85 g are often found. By the end of the 2nd century, the amount of ligature increases to 50%, which leads to a further drop in the denarius exchange rate; old denarii cost 2 times more than new ones. The weight and aureus sample remained virtually unchanged. But its coinage decreased compared to the previous period.

Composition of denominations under the last Antonines:

Gold

Aureus - 7.23 g

Quinarium (half aureus) - 3.61 g

Silver

Denarius - 3.08 g

Quinarius (half a denarius) - 1.66 g

Aurichalcum

Sestertius - 25.03 g

Dupondium - 12.63 g

Bronze

Ass - 10.31 g

Quadrans - 3.16 g (only under Antonin Pius).

Monetary circulation of the Roman Empire in the 3rd - 5th centuries

Reform of Caracalla and coinage at the beginning of the 3rd century

In 215, the coin system experienced major changes. Caracalla changed the weight of the aureus, which was now knocked out in the amount of 50 pieces from the libra. A double aura began to be released. In addition, Caracalla began to issue double-sized denarius and more weight, Antoninian, who differed from the old ones in that the crown of the emperors on him was radial, and the busts of the empresses were decorated below with a crescent. The question of the relationship between Antoninian and denarius is still open. The Caracalla reform was carried out in the interests of the army. However, Caracalla was unable to level the exchange rate of silver, since the deterioration of the coin continued; it contained more than half of copper. The coinage of aurei decreased significantly. The coins of the first Severas and their opponents had the following weights.

Composition of denominations under the North:

Gold

Double aureus (only with Caracalla) - 13.19 g

Aurey - 6.84 g

Quinarium (half aureus) - 3.41 g

Silver

Antoninian (only under Caracalla) - 5.16 g

Denarius - 3.11 g

Quinarium (half a denarius) - 1.41 g

Kistofor - 8.63 g

Aurichalcum

Sestertius - 23.47 g

Dupondium - 10.79 g

Bronze

Ass - 11.95 g

From the data presented it follows that the weight of the ass exceeds the average statistical weight of dupondium. This is explained by large fluctuations in the weights of coins of these denominations: dupondium from 8.50 to 13.08 g, assa from 9.84 to 14.06 g, as well as the difference in the price of aurihalc and bronze.

Monetary circulation system in the 20-60s of the 3rd century

The emperors of this time made attempts to stabilize the monetary circulation system. Thus, Alexander Severus and Maximinus the Thracian refused to issue Antoninians and again gave preference to the denarius, which continued to lose its quality more and more. Only three denominations of copper coins are still issued: sestertius, dupondius and ass. Gordian III resumes the issue of Antoninians, which soon completely displaces the denarius from circulation. By the middle of the 3rd century, the Antoninian turns into a purely copper coin with a meager silver content of 2%. It depreciated so much that such denominations were counted in bags. The circulation of the copper coin loses its meaning, and its minting ends in the provinces and Rome. Until the end of the 60s, large bronze coins were minted in the city, the denomination of which is very difficult to determine due to the instability of the weight of the bronze coin units. By the time of Gallienus, the Roman monetary system was completely undermined. The usurpers and the emperor beat great amount coins. A deep crisis is approaching. Some emperors tried to overcome it, for example, Postumus, who united the western provinces. The Augusta Treverov mint minted improved quality silver coins and large bronze coins. Claudius II and others tried to establish the production of silver coins; Victorinus led its intensive minting. However, these attempts, which were successful in a certain part of the Empire, could not produce tangible results on a national scale.

Reforms of Aurelian and Diocletian

The next attempt to stabilize the situation was made by Aurelian. He continues to mint the inferior Antoninian, on which are placed the XX.I and KA denominations, the meaning of which is not established. Aurelian is trying to improve the quality of the gold coin: by the time of his reign the composition of the aureus was like this. Gold 1.33%, silver 15.94% and copper 82.73%. However, the crisis in the Empire continued to deepen. Diocletian's monetary reform was carried out in close connection with tax reform, and was aimed at increasing the exchange rate of money. Diocletian returned into circulation the aureus, which was minted in the amount of 70, and then 60 pieces from the libra, and a silver coin, which was knocked out in the amount of 96 pieces from the libra. Another silver coin was the miliarensius, introduced into circulation by Diocletian. In addition, bronze silver-plated coins were minted at the rate of 30 pieces per libra, weighing 9-13 grams. Diocletian's reform was doomed to failure in advance due to the violation of the ratio between gold, silver and copper. In addition, coins made of bad silver and a lot of counterfeit coins continued to circulate.

Monetary reform of Constantine the Great and the monetary system in the 4th - 5th centuries

Under Constantine I, the economic situation and the monetary circulation system became stronger. The reform carried out in 309-324 played a big role in this. In 309 Constantine introduced the gold solidus, first in the east, and in 324 throughout the Empire. Solid had 4 scruples of gold and was almost unalloyed. Its high quality gave the coin high authority not only within the country, but also abroad. Solid weighed 4.55 g and amounted to 72 pieces per pound. In addition to solid, its fractions were produced: semis (1/2), triens (1/3) and weighing 1.52 g. Solid becomes the basis of the counting and weight system. New ones appear silver denominations: heavy miliarensium weighing 5.54 g, minted in quantities of 60 pieces per pound; silicva (1/144), half miliarencia. Nummia weighing 9-13 g were minted in bronze and were introduced into circulation under Diocletian. By 311 their weight had dropped to 4-5 grams. Until the end of the imperial period, the monetary system created by Constantine did not change significantly. Subsequent emperors introduced some new denominations. Under Valentinian I, the production of triens increased, and Theodosius I minted even more of them. He may also have begun minting coins of 1.5 solidi. Majorina was introduced with magnesium. Included in the circulation of centenionals - copper coin with a minor silver content weighing 2-3 grams. Honorius began minting coins in denominations of half a siliqua. By the end of the 4th and beginning of the 5th century, the composition of denominations was determined as follows:

Gold

Solid - 4.55 g

1/2 solid - 2.30 g

1/3 solid - 1.50 g

Silver

Severe miliarensia - 5.54 g

Light miliarensium - 4.54 g

Silikva - 2.28 g

1/2 siliqua - 1.15 g

Bronze

Nummium - 9-13 g

Majorin -?

Centenional - 2-3 g.

As a counting unit, the solidus was divided into 12 miliarensii or 24 siliquas (288 nummii). Silikva made up 1/6 of a scruple and was used as the basis for counting in Byzantine times. The ratio between gold and silver was approximately 14:1. In this form, the coin system existed until Byzantine times.

This section is compiled based on materials from the books of M.G. Abramzon “Coins as a means of promoting the official policy of the Roman Empire” and L. Vinnichuk “People, morals and customs” Ancient Greece and Rome."

Ancient Rome was a powerful state that occupied large areas. In order to control everything and keep the lands in subjection, it was necessary not only to act by force, but also to have an advanced financial system. With its introduction to the newly conquered lands, it was more difficult for the people to separate from the Romans. In this article we will take a closer look at the coins that were in use in Ancient Rome.

Bronze coins of Rome

Ass

This coin first appeared during the Republic period, although, according to legend, Servius Tullius began minting it. The weight of the ass was 11 grams, and the diameter was 28 mm. It is interesting that before the appearance of this coin, ingots of raw copper were in use.

There was 2 types of this coin: imperial and maritime. The naval ace was used only to pay the sailors' salaries. These coins were minted under the supervision of naval prefects.

On the obverse Janus was depicted, and on the reverse were written the name of the city where the coin was created, the denomination and a ship was depicted. The imperial ace contained an image of the emperor on the obverse, and on reverse there was the emperor's monogram and a colonnade. Various abbreviations were also often carved.

Today the price of such a coin is about 300 US dollars.

Semis

Another ancient Roman bronze coin that was worth ½ asses. The weight of the monetary unit was 3.88 grams and the diameter was 18 mm. The coin was established during the Republic, and abolished under Emperor Hadrian.

On one side of the semis there was a bust of Saturn, and on the other there was a portrait of the emperor. During the Republic, Saturn was depicted on both sides and the denomination designation was the Latin letter “S”.

To add such a coin to your collection, you need to pay price from 60 to 80 dollars.

Triens

This coin had a value of 1/3 asses or 4 ounces. Four dots on both sides indicated that it was worth 4 ounces. This coin weighed 10.58 grams and the size was 23-24 mm.

She had on the obverse the image of the emperor, but during the Republic period Minevra was depicted there. On reverse the bow of the galley is located if we're talking about about sea money, or a colonnade with the emperor's monogram. It was on the reverse that the denomination of the coin was always written.

Today the market is average triens cost is 50-80 US dollars. Although, there are copies in good condition, the price of which reaches $120.

Quadrans

Quadrans is one of the smallest bronze coins in Roman use. It cost ¼ ace.

Outwardly, it had the shape of an irregular circle. On the obverse it was written “SC”, which indicated the denomination “Senatus Consulto”, and there was also a circular inscription. Reverse contained two hands in the form of a handshake and a circular inscription in Latin.

It is worth noting that this coin disappeared from use in the 2nd century. Throughout the history of its existence, not only bronze, but also copper and silver were used. Therefore, it is quite difficult to determine the average cost today. However, regardless of the metal, all coins weighed 3.3-3.5 grams and had a diameter of 17-19 mm. If we talk about bronze coins, then their approximate price 20-70 US dollars.

Sextance

This coin was worth 1/6 asses, as the name suggests. It weighed 2.85 grams and was about 15 mm in diameter. The denomination on the coin is depicted as 2 circles, which means 2 ounces. Sextance first appeared during the Republic, but disappeared with the collapse of the Roman Empire.

On the obverse various pictures were minted: animals, images of people, shells and much more. There is a dotted decorative border around the entire circle of the coin. Only in the 3rd century did an image of Mercury appear here.

On reverse the bow of a galley or the inscription “ROMA” was depicted. The cost of a sextant on the modern market is around 50 US dollars. There are copies that sell for 10-12 dollars.

Ounce

Ounce is the smallest common coin in the Roman Empire.

Outwardly she not much different from sextance, only its size was 8 mm and its weight was 1.5 grams. Quite a few ounces have survived to this day, but despite this, price their prices are quite low in the modern market. average price per coin is 10-18 dollars.

Silver coins of Rome

Double denarius or Antoninian

It was most expensive silver coin in Ancient Rome. It weighed at various times from 11 to 15 grams, and the diameter was 27-30 mm.

There were various images on the coin. These could be animals or plants, or they could be deities. The reverse, as a rule, depicted the profile of the emperor or the emperor on horseback. A lot of double denarii have survived to this day in good condition. Therefore they price quite low. On average, such a coin can be purchased for $50.

Denarius

Denarius – most common coin in Ancient Rome. It was used when making external and internal trade transactions. It was first minted in 268 AD. The symbol for the denarius is “X, X”. This symbol is explained by the fact that 1 denarius was equal to 10 asses.

Initially, the weight of this coin was 4.5 grams, but later it periodically changed downward.

Externally a denarius looked like this: on the obverse there was an image of the emperor with a laurel wreath on his head, and an inscription in Latin in a circle; the reverse contained images of Roman gods. It was on the reverse that the mark on the denomination of the coin was located. Today, denarii are sold on the market for 120-150 dollars. If the copy is in excellent condition, then the price can exceed $200.

Double victoriat and victoriat

Data silver coins cost 20 asses and 10 aces respectively. They were mostly used in foreign trade. They appeared in 269 as a result of another financial reform.

On the obverse Jupiter was depicted, and on reverse Victoria, from which the name of the coin comes. The double victoriat weighed 6 grams, and the victoriat weighed 3 grams. However, they did not last long. These coins completely replaced denarii, which were more popular among traders, from circulation.

Today buy double victoriat you can get it for 100-120 US dollars, and the Victoriat is about 100 dollars. The safety of coins is usually quite good, since silver is a wear-resistant material.

Quinarius

Quinarium cost 5 asses and was not very popular among traders. However, this coin was minted for almost 5 centuries. 1 quinarium weighed about 1.5 grams, and the diameter was 15 mm.

The denomination of this coin was indicated on the reverse with the sign V or V. Also on reverse the goddess Victoria was depicted, and on the obverse portrait of the emperor. It is interesting that it was in these coins that the salaries of the Roman legionnaires were paid.

To add quinarium to your collection, you must pay price about 70 US dollars. Shipping costs are usually also the responsibility of the buyer.

Sestertius

This coin cost only 2 asses and for a long time was made of silver, but after Emperor Augustus it began to be minted from brass.

The denomination was designated "IIS". On the obverse depicted an ancient Roman god, and on reverse the emperor was minted. There was a small decorative border on both sides, but due to technological features, it was not around the entire circle of the coin. Each such coin weighed approximately 11 grams and its diameter was 24-26 mm.

Today average price on the market for sesterces is 180 dollars.

Semi-victorial

Semi-victory is smallest silver coin Ancient Rome.

On it, unlike Victoriat, on the obverse Apollo was depicted on reverse a portrait of the emperor remained. This coin was worth ½ denarius and the letter “S” was used to denote the denomination. Today is his price is approximately 140 dollars.

Gold coins of Rome

Gold denarius or aureus

On the obverse, as a rule, the image of the emperor was minted without any inscriptions, and on reverse there was the goddess Victoria. It is interesting that the first such coins were made only from high-grade gold, but over the 500 years of their existence, the quality of the raw materials has noticeably decreased, as well as the value of the coins themselves. This was connected with the ongoing financial reforms and devaluations.

Today buy a gold denarius possible for 10-12 thousand US dollars. Although, there are copies that cost up to $18,000.

Sesterces

Very popular gold coins were sestertii. They had denominations 60, 40 and 20. These banknotes were used to pay salaries to the Roman commanders-in-chief, as well as to make external trade payments. Most of these coins were of a propaganda nature.

They depicted emperors accepting the surrender of rebellious peoples or suppressing an uprising. On the other side was the profile of the emperor with a laurel wreath on his head. On most coins, the overlords faced to the right.

All golden sisters are different high quality and detailed drawing of the pattern. 60 sisters weighed about 25 grams, 40 sisters weighed about 20 grams and 20 sisters weighed 19.5 grams. The diameter of the coins varied from 32 mm to 41 mm.

To purchase such coins today, you need to pay quite a lot. average price on the market is about $10,000. However, samples of average quality can sell for 7-8 thousand dollars.

Golden Quinarius

Another gold ancient Roman coin. It was small and light, so it was used to pay soldiers' salaries. This coin was easy to store and carry. Its size and weight were the same as that of a silver quinarium, but its value was much higher. 2 gold quinaria were equal to one aureus.

To purchase such a coin today, you need to pay price 5-7 thousand dollars.

The Roman Empire is one of the most majestic countries of Antiquity, which received its name in honor of its capital - the city of Rome, the founder of which is considered to be Romulus.

The territory of the empire was striking in its size: it stretched from north to south from Great Britain to Ethiopia, from east to west from Iran to Portugal.

In terms of development, the ancient Romans were far ahead of their time. It was here that Roman law originated and spread; architectural phenomena such as the dome and arch also first appeared in Rome. The empire had sewage systems, excellent baths and saunas with hot water, water mills, by the way, were also invented here, not to mention the roads, which are in perfect condition and are still in use.

Culture and life of the ancient Romans

The official language of the Roman Empire was Latin, the same one that currently denotes most medical terms. In those days, they were able to treat many diseases, including fractures, dental problems (during excavations they found a skull with filled teeth), and performed surgical operations.

In general, the standard of living in the Roman Empire was the highest in those times. She successfully resisted the barbarians, fought several wars with Carthage, eventually wiping out the formidable enemy from the face of the Earth, and also carried out powerful campaigns to seize neighboring territories.

We know a lot about the ancient rulers, science, culture and life of the Romans due to the fact that they kept detailed records of all the outstanding events in the life of the country, many of which have survived to this day.

Form of government and civil liberties

The Romans managed to create and maintain a republican form of government. Even slaves here had their own rights and opportunities. The inhabitants of the country adhered to their own ideology, which subsequently allowed them to expand the territory of the country and make it a huge Superpower of that time.

Patriarchy reigned in Rome. But, despite the fact that the head of the family was the eldest man and all other family members were under his authority, women had some rights and freedoms. Thus, a woman was engaged in household affairs, had the right to move freely around the city or country, visit friends, and attend public meetings.

Politics was carried out exclusively by men, but women from high society were allowed certain privileges. And yet, representatives of the fair sex did not have the right to own real estate, nor did sons until the death of their father. The head of the clan was also in charge of financial matters of the family. He could also recognize the child as his own and support him or order him to be killed.

Education

Education was born in the Roman Empire, which can rightfully be considered the forerunner of the modern education system. Girls and boys entered school at the age of seven. Education was divided into three stages: primary, secondary and higher. At the first two stages they were given general information in every subject, and in higher school the emphasis was on the study of oratory.

Rich families preferred home education for their children; it was considered very prestigious to have a Greek teacher, who, as a rule, was a slave.

There were schools where girls and boys studied together. At the age of 17, young men were required to undergo military training. For girls, education was also compulsory, but it was of a more practical nature - knowledge and skills were supposed to help them carry out housewife duties and raise children.

It was very fashionable to receive higher education in Greece. Rhetoric was mainly taught in schools on the island of Rhodes, which was far from a cheap pleasure, but gave great prospects.

Financial system in the early stages of the formation of Rome

At the dawn of the empire, the Italian economy was built on natural commodity exchange. Let's say a family specialized in production (baking bread), it grew grain, collected, ground and made flour, which it later used. Family members exchanged the finished bread for the goods they needed.

Later, cattle began to play the role of money. With the rise of the country's economy, small ingots of copper and gold appear, which have become more convenient monetary substitutes. Over time, they transformed into the first Roman coins. This is how weighted money appeared.

The first money - copper coins

In the 4th century BC. e. The first Roman bronze coins, called “asses,” began to be minted on the territory of the state. There were two types of aces: imperial and naval, with whom the sailors were paid.

Greek coins - drachmas - are actively used. But Roman silver coins began to be minted in 268 BC. e. These coins depicted gods, rulers and prominent government figures, and various animals.

Empires, photos of samples of which are given below, are found everywhere on the former territory of the state.

The production of coins was carried out by the Senate and a special unit, the prototype of the mint. There are records that during the reign of Gaius Julius Caesar, Roman gold coins were minted by the mint, and sometimes it produced coins that deliberately underestimated the purity of the metal, in other words, counterfeit money.

Gold coins were issued in various denominations: 60 asses (3.5 grams), 40 (2.2 grams) and 20 (1.2 grams) asses.

Variety of silver and copper coins

There were four types of silver coins:

• Denarius, worth 10 asses. Their weight was 4.5 grams.
• Victoriat, the cost of which was equal to 7.5 asses, and the weight was 3.4 grams.
• Quinarius. The equivalent in asses was 5 coins. Weight - 2.2 grams.
• Sestertius (2.5 asses - 1.1 grams).

The denarius was the most common currency made from silver. Such coins participated in both domestic and foreign trade. The double denarius was the most expensive Roman silver coin.

The Roman copper coin, in addition to the asses, had several other types, the main difference being their size and weight.

• ass - 36 grams;
• sevenmiss - 18 grams;
• triens - 12 grams;
• quadrans - 9 grams;
• sextance - 6 grams;
• ounce - 3 grams;
• semuntsia - 1.5 grams.

Silver shortage and new gold coin - aureus

The minting of gold coins stopped after completion and resumed just 100 years later, during the reign of Sulla. The reason for restoring this monetary system There was a shortage of silver and an excess of gold in the state, as well as the need to finance the impending war against the Marians.

The new Roman gold coin was called the aureus, which is translated from Latin as “golden”. The weight of the coin was 10.5 grams. The rare ancient Roman coin of Pompey Magna, minted due to a shortage of silver, dates back to this time. After the Sertorian War, aurei went out of use.

Financial reform

A new monetary reform was carried out in 141. Its necessity was caused by the constant fall in the value of aces. Now Roman coins had a new symbol instead of the “X” image - an asterisk or a crossed out ten.

Silver coins such as the sestertius and quinarius also disappear a few years after the reform.

Copper money remained almost unchanged until the beginning of the 1st century, after which it gradually disappeared from the arena. At this time, the Roman Empire already had an impressive size, so the financial needs of the power were met by local coinage: tetradrachms of Macedonia, cystophora of Asia Minor, bronze and other provinces of Rome. There was a credit and bill system, as well as promissory notes.

Bronze was a fairly cheap material, and in order to give the coins a purchasing value, a special abbreviation was printed on them - SC, which stood for Senatus Consulto. Almost all bronze coins issued before the 3rd century had this mark on the reverse side.

On coins of the later times of Aurelian and Postumus, this sign is absent, but on all others it is, and with almost no variation in writing. Also, during the period of prosperity of the Empire, several rare coins made of precious metals, with the abbreviations EX, SC. Historians believe that these Roman coins were minted from senatorial bullion of a higher standard.

Image of rulers on money and decoding of inscriptions

The money of different eras depicted the rulers corresponding to that time. Roman emperors stood out quite clearly on coins; there were usually inscriptions and abbreviations around their heads.

For example, on a coin from the time of Domitian, the profile of the ruler is shown, and around you can make out the following inscription: IMP CAES DOMIT AVG GERM PM TRP XII
IMP XXII COS XVI CENS P PP.

Let's look at this inscription in more detail.

1. The abbreviation IMP means "Imperor" - the commander-in-chief of the Roman army. The title was renewed after each victorious war.
2. The number after the title of Emperor indicates how many times that title has been awarded to that person. If there is no number, it means he received the title only once.
3. CAES - means Caesar. An imperial title dating back to the time of Julius Caesar, in whose name this designation can be seen.
4. AVG - August. Another imperial title. For a long period of time, rulers bore both titles: Caesar and Augustus, as a more modern definition. Later, the title Caesar began to refer to the youngest member of the imperial family.
5. PM - Pontific Maximus, or Supreme Pontiff. If several rulers ruled at the same time, then this title passed to the eldest of the emperors, all the others were simply listed as pontiffs. With the adoption of Christianity, this designation was no longer used. And over time, the title began to belong to the Pope.
6. TRP - translated as tribune of the people, which was a very honorable position in Republican Rome. The number next to the abbreviation indicates the number of times the ruler performed the duties of the above-mentioned office.
7. COS - Consul - the highest position in Rome during the Republic. During the empire, it was often performed by members of the ruling family, but only the Emperor could become Consul more than once. The number shown next to it shows how many times Caesar served as Consul. In the case of Domitian we see the number 16.
8. PP - Father of the Fatherland. The title was awarded to emperors several years after their reign. Domitian received it in his 12th year in power. In the case of the mint, they made a mistake. In the first year of the emperor's reign, a batch of coins was issued with the title of Father of the Fatherland assigned to him; in the next decade, this title was absent from coins.
9. GERM - Germanic. Served as a reminder and glorification of a particular emperor as a conqueror and conqueror of tribes.
10. CENS P - position of censor. As a rule, the emperor fulfilled it for life.

There are a number of other interesting abbreviations, as, for example, on coins from the times of Constantine I, II and Licinius II.

On these coins, in addition to the designations already known to us, the following abbreviations appear.

1. MAX - Maximus, i.e. The Greatest. The title was given to Constantine I, better known as Constantine the Great.
2. SM, P - Sacra coin, or petsunia (money), was sometimes included in the hallmark of the coinage board.
3. VOT - Here is an oath. Each emperor took an oath in which he promised to serve his people. Usually it was repeated after a certain time.
4. PERP - Perpetus - eternal. The definition was used in combination with other titles.
5. DN - Dominus Noster, can be translated as "our master." The ceremony of the new Caesar coming to power began with these words.
6. DV - Divus, which means "divine". This title was awarded to the deceased deified ruler.
7. PT - Pater, father. This inscription appeared on coins with Constantine the Great, which were issued by his sons.
8. VNMR - Venerabilis memoria, or eternal memory. Inscription on coins dedicated to Constantine the Great.

Images of gods on coins of various eras

In addition to the Caesars, Roman coins bore images of their gods. Such coins became widespread in Greece, which was already part of the Roman Empire.

The following deities were mainly depicted:

• Asclepius, patron of medicine.
• Apollo is the god of music and the arts.
• Liber Bacchus is the god of wine and entertainment. The coin was issued during
• Demeter is the goddess of agriculture.
• Celeste is an African goddess, whose cult was especially popular in Rome during the reign of the Severus.
• Artemis is a goddess-hunter. The coin was issued during the time of Julius Domnus.
• Hercules is a demigod, the son of Zeus and a mortal woman. It was a symbol of strength and steadfastness. Depicted on coins from the period of Septimius Severus.
• Isis is an Egyptian goddess who was very popular in the Empire in the late 3rd century AD. e. It can be seen on the denarius of the times of Julius Domnus.
• Janus appeared frequently on denarii in Republican times, but was extremely rare in the Empire.
• Juno is the wife of the supreme god Zeus. The coin was minted during the time of Julius Maesus.
• Zeus is the sestertius of the North.
• Ares, Mars - bloody god of war. It was popular during the time of Septimius Severus.
• to sweep. Found on the denarius of Emperor Claudius.

Coins can be purchased at auctions starting at $50 each, or from collectors for a negotiable price. They are a frequent exhibit among admirers of antiquity.

Roman coins, photos of which are published in online auctions, can be examined in detail before purchasing. But rare finds that can be viewed in European museums become public knowledge.