Map of the Russian Empire in the 16th century. Russian states of the 16th century

I was looking for maps of Russia in the 17th and 18th centuries. I'm so interested the former borders of our state that I decided to find maps of Russia from other centuries. Although, of course, all this was covered in history at school, but now, after years, it is perceived somewhat differently. I offer you a short journey into the depths of centuries along the borders of the Russian state.

Borders of the Old Russian state in the 9th – 11th centuries. The Old Russian state was formed in 862.

Map of Ancient Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation in the 12th and early 13th centuries, when the ancient Russian lands were tormented on the one hand by civil strife between princes, and on the other hand by raids of nomads. Each principality had its own borders.

Map of Rus' in the 14th century during the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, when part of the lands of northeastern Rus' were united around the Principality of Moscow, and part of the Western Russian lands became part of the Principality of Lithuania. But each principality that joined the Moscow principality retains its own borders.

In the 15th-16th centuries, a single border of the Russian state was formed again.

At the end of the 16th century, the borders of the Russian state moved towards the Caspian Sea and beyond. In the 17th century they reach the Pacific Ocean, and in the west Russia regains the lands of Kievan Rus.

In the 18th – 19th centuries, the Russian Empire owned the largest territory in its entire history. Its borders reached America, the Alaska Peninsula was discovered by a Russian expedition in 1732 and was Russian territory until it was sold to the United States in 1867. The territory of Russia expanded to the south - to Central Asia, the Caucasus and Crimea. Also, the border moved west to the limits of the Old Russian state. And in the northwest, Finland became part of the Russian Empire.

On the map of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century, the borders on the islands of the Far East are changing. Since 1855, Sakhalin Island has officially been a joint possession of Russia and Japan. In 1875, under a treaty, Russia transferred the Kuril Islands to Japan in exchange for undivided ownership of the island of Sakhalin. And after Russia’s defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904 - 1905), the southern part of Sakhalin went to Japan.

20th century, borders of the USSR, which includes 15 union republics: RSFSR, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Belarus, Moldova, Ukraine, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan. After the Second World War, the entire territory of the island was included in the USSR. Sakhalin and all the Kuril Islands.

Map modern Russia. The end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st centuries after the collapse of the USSR, each republic was on its own; all 15 republics became sovereign states with their own borders.

This is how they have changed over the centuries borders of our state .

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Burning of Moscow by the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey 1571. Defeat of Devlet-Girey under Molodi Vorotynsky 1572. Construction of border fences and ramparts. Stations and guards. Russian development of the southern steppes. Don Cossacks

Among other matters of the second half of Ivan the Terrible’s reign, measures for the defense of the southern border of the state and for the settlement of the so-called “wild field” to the south of the Oka were of particular importance. The conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan made a strong impression on the Crimean Tatars and their supreme ruler, the Turkish Sultan. There were demands from the Turks and Tatars to return the khanates taken by the Russians to them and preparations were made for a campaign near Astrakhan and for a raid on Moscow itself. Finally, in 1571, the Crimean Khan, following the same path that Khan Akhmat walked in 1480, managed to deceive the Russian guard commanders and reached Moscow itself, which he plundered and burned. The next year he again appeared on the Oka, crossed it, but this time he was defeated on the river. Lopasne [under Molodi] by Prince M.I. Vorotynsky and ran away.

M. I. Vorotynsky at the Monument “1000th Anniversary of Russia” in Veliky Novgorod

All these circumstances forced the Moscow government to think about how best to protect itself from Tatar attacks in the future. Previously, the border of Moscow's possessions from the south was the bank of the middle Oka; but during the time of Ivan IV, many Russian people had already settled beyond the Oka, south of the fortresses that stood there to defend the border. Going out to the “Ukraine” or the “wild field”, Russian people became free “Cossacks” there. There was no authority over them except their chosen “chieftains”. They hunted, fished, fought with the Tatars, who also “Cossacked” in the “wild field.” Sometimes Russian Cossacks attacked Tatar cities near the Azov and Black Seas and plundered them; and sometimes they robbed their own Russian merchants and Russian embassies that were going through the “field” to the Crimea. The Moscow government knew about the existence of Cossacks on the “field” and often hired them into its service. Counting on the fact that there was enough Russian population on the “field”, under Grozny in Moscow they decided to occupy the “wild field” with troops, place cities in the most important places, and draw a fortified border between the cities, through which the Tatars would not be able to pass unknown . In 1571, in Moscow, they formed a special council of people who knew the matter and developed a general plan of action. According to this plan, they began to build cities, placing them further and further south (the most important of them is Belgorod). Between the cities they began to build ramparts in open places and fences in the forests; They began to build fortifications at fords across rivers. Observation detachments - “watchmen” - began to be placed in different places of the new border, and patrols - “stanitsa” - began to be sent along the border. For service in cities, villages and watchmen, in addition to those people who were sent from Moscow, people were recruited from the Cossacks and local settlers. By the end of the 16th century. the entire “field”, up to the upper reaches of the Vorskla and Seversky Donets rivers, was occupied by fortresses and became part of the Moscow state. This acquisition achieved not only greater security from the Tatars, but also the opportunity to populate the rich black soil spaces of central Russia. The Cossacks, who did not want to submit to state power, went south and concentrated on the lower reaches of the Don and Donets, which is why they called themselves “grassroots”. Little by little it formed an organized community (“circle”) with elected atamans at its head.

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Russian-Polish War 1654-1667

Madmen pave the way for the sensible to follow.

Fedor Dostoevsky

After an alliance concluded with the Cossack hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky in 1654, Russia began a war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The purpose of this war was the desire to protect the Ukrainian people from the atrocities of Poland, and to return Ukraine to Russia. The Russian-Polish War of 1654-1667, briefly described in this article, took place in several stages and ended with the victory of Russia and the annexation of part of Cossack Ukraine.

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In this article we will look at the main causes of the Russian-Polish war, its stages, as well as the results and historical significance for Russia and Ukraine.

Causes of the war between Russia and Poland

In 1648, the Ukrainian hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky began a war against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

After repeated appeals to the Moscow Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich with the aim of concluding an alliance against Poland, in 1653 the Zemsky Sobor gave a positive response to the hetman’s proposals. In January 1654, in Pereyaslav, near Kiev, the parties negotiated the terms of the future union, and in March they signed an agreement on “the transfer of the Cossacks to the tsar’s hand.”

Let me remind you that Alexei Romanov did not agree for a long time to Ukraine’s pleas to join Russia, because he understood that this would mean war with Poland. Nevertheless, this “annexation” was carried out because Khmelnitsky began to threaten that if Russia did not accept Ukraine, then Turkey would do so.

Since the Ukrainian lands were part of Poland, this automatically meant the beginning of the Russian-Polish war.

For Russia there were several goals in this war:

1. Return of Smolensk and the lands around it lost during the Time of Troubles.
2. Help the Cossacks liberate Ukraine from the Polish gentry, and establish Russian protection over Ukraine.

Khmelnitsky turned to Alexei Mikhailovich with a request for help in 1648, 1649 and 1651, but the requests were rejected due to the fact that Russia established normal relations with Poland in the first half of the 17th century and did not want to spoil them with another war.

In 1653, Russia decided to help Ukraine, which meant another war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. One of the reasons why Russia went to war with Poland was the weakness of the Polish army, caused by participation in long and endless wars (with Russia, the Thirty Years in Europe, with the Cossacks). Considering this fact, as well as Khmelnitsky’s views on Turkey, the Russian kingdom counted on success.

As a result, the Russian-Polish War of 1654 - 1667 began, a very successful war for Russia.

Map of the Russian-Polish War 1654-1667

Progress of the war and main companies

The war with Poland itself 1654-1667 can be divided into 3 military companies, which were interrupted by truces, as well as the war with Sweden.

Let's take a closer look at each of these stages.

Company 1654-1656

The campaign of the Russian state in 1654 was called the “sovereign campaign.” It was with this campaign that the Russian-Polish war began. In May, Russian troops moved towards Smolensk.

On June 11, troops captured Polotsk, and in August the army of Matvey Sheremetyev entered the important Belarusian-Lithuanian fortress of Orsha. The assault on Smolensk was unsuccessful, however, after a two-month siege, Gomel was captured at the end of August.

The second attempt to storm Smolensk began at the end of August, and already on September 10, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich received information about the capture of Smolensk.

In November, another important city was captured - Vitebsk. Especially for this war, a separate Belarusian Cossack regiment was formed on the territory of Belarus. Also participating in this campaign were Zaporozhye Cossacks and Astrakhan Tatars. Total Russian army numbered about 13.5 thousand soldiers.

In December 1648, a counter-offensive of Lithuanian troops began against Mogilev, led by Prince Radziwill. However, thanks to the successful actions of Khmelnitsky and F. Buturlin, part of the Polish-Lithuanian troops was transferred to the territory of Right Bank Ukraine.

As a result of successful Ukrainian-Russian actions, by the end of 1655 Minsk and Vilna were captured. However, at this moment Sweden enters the war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, forcing Poland to negotiate a truce with Russia. The Muscovite kingdom agreed to an alliance because an anti-Russian Polish-Swedish alliance could be formed; in addition, access to the Baltic Sea was a higher priority for Russia than the annexation of Right Bank Ukraine.

As a result, in 1656, Poland and Russia signed the Vilna Truce, and a war with Sweden began. The Russian-Polish War of 1654-1667 received a temporary lull.

War with Sweden 1656-1658

The war took place on the territory of Livonia, in 1656 Russia stormed Riga.

After Russia's ally Denmark concluded a truce with the Swedes, Alexei Mikhailovich also began negotiations. In December 1658, the parties signed a truce, Russia seized small areas in the Baltics.

After the truce between Russia and Poland, the latter remained at war with the Cossacks, so the Ukrainian Hetman Khmelnytsky decided to find a new ally. He turned to Sweden and Transylvania for help, but the treaty was never signed because Khmelnytsky died in August 1657.

The next hetman, Ivan Vyhovsky, announced a severance of relations with Russia and signed the Gadyatsky Treaty with Poland in 1658. Ukraine returned to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This meant the beginning of a new stage of the war between Russia and Poland. Moreover, in Ukraine itself, many did not support Vygovsky. Counting on this fact, Russia begins to send troops into the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Ukraine.

Military campaign 1658-1662

In October 1658 there were several battles on the territory of Belarus.

In the battle near the village of Verki, the army of Prince Yuri Dolgoruky defeated the Polish troops, which prevented the advance of the Lithuanian troops and the opening of a second front.

In 1659, Vygovsky’s troops, in alliance with the Crimean Tatars, defeated Trubetskoy’s army near Konotop. Russia was preparing for a counter-offensive by Ukrainian-Tatar-Polish troops, but Hetman Vygovsky completely lost the trust of the Cossacks, left his post and fled.

Historians consider another reason for the loss of the hetmanship to be the fact that Vygovsky, in exchange for an alliance with the Tatars, allowed them to plunder the territory of the Poltava region, which caused outrage among the Cossacks and peasants. As a result, the son of Bohdan Khmelnitsky, Yuri, became the new hetman, who at the end of 1659 signed a new Treaty of Pereyaslav with Moscow.

In 1660, Russian-Ukrainian troops began a joint campaign against Poland, which was called the “Chudnovskaya Company”, since the main battle was in the area of ​​​​the city of Chudnov.

However, the army suffers a number of defeats, Yuri Khmelnitsky signs a truce with the Poles - the Slobodishchensky Treaty. In mid-1662, Russia lost Vilna, as well as control over the territory of Lithuania, Belarus and most of Ukraine.

Not only the controversial policies of the Cossack hetmans, but also internal problems (the Copper Riot, the Bashkir Uprising, etc.) had a great influence on the failures of the Russian army. However, despite a large number of problems and failures, at the end of 1662, the Russian army led by Romodanovsky was able to inflict a number of defeats on the Polish-Ukrainian army near Kanev and Pereyaslav, which completely undermined the authority of Yuri Khmelnitsky in the eyes of the Cossacks.

Military campaign 1663-1667

In 1663, the Russian-Polish war resumed. In Nizhyn, Ivan Bryukhovetsky, who was an ally of Russia, was elected hetman, and on the right bank of the Dnieper, Teterya, an ally of Poland, became hetman.

In the fall of 1663, the Polish king Jan Casimir began a large campaign to the territory of left-bank Ukraine, as well as to Belarus. However, the successful actions of the Ukrainian-Russian army near Gadyach and Glukhov were able to stop the advance of the Polish army. One of the biggest defeats to the Poles was inflicted by Romodanovsky’s army near the village of Pirogovka at the beginning of 1664. After this, the retreat of the Polish troops and Hetman Teteri began.

In the same 1664, Lithuanian-Polish troops tried to organize a siege of Mogilev, but already at the end of February they were in a devastating situation. In 1665, Russia inflicted several more defeats on the Polish army, the main of which were near Bila Tserkva and Korsun.

In 1666, the new hetman of the Right Bank P. Doroshenko entered into an alliance with the Ottoman Empire, as a result of which the Polish-Turkish war began.

This forced Jan Casimir to turn to Russia with a proposal for a truce. The Ruksa-Polish war of 1654-1667 took a pause for the second time. No, this time Russia was not content with a truce, but concluded a peace beneficial to itself.

Peace Treaty and its results

On January 30, 1667, in the village of Andrusovo near Smolensk, an agreement was signed that ended the 13-year Russian-Polish war of 1654-1667. Its main conditions:

• Conclusion of a truce for 13.5 years.

  In 1678, the parties extended the truce for another 13 years.

• Russia received Smolensk and Chernigov-Seversk land. In addition, control was established over Left Bank Ukraine.
• Kyiv passed to Russia for two years.
• The Zaporozhye Sich became the territory of joint Polish-Russian administration.

Historical significance of the war

In 1686, Russia and Poland signed a peace under the very symbolic name “Eternal”. With this document, the parties finally stopped rivalry, moving from war, which lasted intermittently for part of the 17th century, to cooperation.

The result of "Eternal Peace" was the following:

• Kyiv completely became part of Russia, but Poland received compensation of 146 thousand rubles.
• Poland renounced its claims to Smolensk, Chernigov and the entire Left Bank Ukraine.
• The Sich came under Russian control.
• The Muscovite kingdom renounced its claims to Right Bank Ukraine.

Thus, during the Russian-Polish war, the Muscovite kingdom not only regained the Chernigov and Smolensk lands lost during the Time of Troubles, but also for the first time established control over part of Ukraine, which was the result of an alliance with Bogdan Khmelnitsky in Pereyaslav in 1654.

In addition, the peace between Poland and Russia became the basis for the alliance against Sweden, signed by Peter during the Northern War (1700-1721). But that’s another story, and the Russian-Polish war of 1654-1667 ended in victory for Russia.

Maps of ancient Rus'

Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov

Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov, like his father, took the throne at the age of sixteen. Throughout his childhood and youth, the future king was prepared for the kingdom. This was mainly done by B. Morozov, the Tsar’s tutor.

This man subsequently had enormous influence on Alexei and could actually rule the state.

The reign of Alexei Mikhailovich began in 1645. However, very soon new uprisings began to occur in the country, which could weaken the royal power. It would be fair to note that the reasons for most of the uprisings were given by Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov himself.

So on June 1, 16448, a " salt riot" Due to lack of money in the treasury, the tsar, through the head of the Zemsky Prikaz, Pleshcheev, introduced a new large tax on salt.

The citizens were indignant, the uprising arose so strong that Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov was forced to hand Pleshcheev over to the people and expel his teacher, Morozov, from the country. Next was " copper riot" The country was in a difficult financial situation due to wars. Then the king decided to mint money not from silver, as was done before, but from copper.

As a result, money actually depreciated fifteen times. Merchants refused to sell goods for new money. The army stopped receiving salaries.

In July 1662, an uprising arose, which led to the king's house. There they were met by an armed army, which crushed the uprising and severely punished the rebels. Many participants in the uprising had their hands, feet, and tongues cut off. This was the verdict of the court. Despite this, the circulation of copper money was cancelled.

Tsar's reforms

In 1670, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov faced a new danger within the country. A powerful uprising broke out again in the country in the spring of that year, led by Stepan Razin. This uprising was suppressed by the end of 1671. Most of Razin's army was destroyed, and Stepan himself was arrested by tsarist troops near the town of Kagalnitsky.

Foreign policy

At this time, the liberation movement began on the territory of modern Ukraine.

Ukrainians, led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky, fought with the Poles for independence. The forces were unequal, and in 1652 Khmelnitsky turned to the Russian Tsar to accept Ukraine into Russia.

For more than a year, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov hesitated, realizing that accepting Ukraine would mean war with Poland.

Khmelnitsky, seeing Moscow's hesitation, set a condition in 1653 that if Russia did not include Ukraine in the country in the near future, then Khmelnitsky would go to Turkey with the same proposal. The possible Russian-Turkish border in this regard seemed to be the worst possible option. On October 1, 1653, the Zemsky Council decided to annex Ukraine.

Immediately after these events began war with Poland.

It lasted 15 years. Both of them achieved success alternately. At the very beginning of the war in Ukraine, Khmelnitsky died. Ivan Vyhovsky was elected as the new hetman, who declared his allegiance to Poland and sent a notification to the Polish king that Ukraine wished to reunite with Poland. Thus, Ukraine, because of which Russia became embroiled in a war with Poland, betrayed Russia.

The Ukrainian people did not recognize Polish power. The war depleted Poland's resources. During these same years they fought against the Swedes and Turks. As a result, the Truce of Andrusovo was concluded in 1667. Russia returned Smolensk and the Northern Lands, as well as left-bank Ukraine.

Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov organized many campaigns aimed at exploring Siberia and the Far East.

As a result of these campaigns, as well as campaigns organized by Alexei’s successors, it was possible to expand the borders of the state to the shores of the Pacific Ocean.

In 1675, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov died.

The “Big Drawing” is considered the pinnacle of Russian cartography and represents largest map Rus' of the 16th century After the unification of the Russian lands, Ivan IV the Terrible in 1552 “ordered the land to be measured and a drawing made for the entire state.” This was the beginning of a global-scale work of collecting information and creating “blueprints.”

Information was accumulated on territories covering the interior regions of the Northern Dvina, Kama, Volga, Pechora, Oka with their tributaries, as well as part of the Trans-Ural steppes and lands south of the lower reaches of the Don and in the Caspian region. Just imagine that there were about 1340 names, including 880 rivers, 400 cities and about 60 lakes.

All of them belonged to the European part of Russia (excluding villages).

Over several decades, a lot of cartographic and descriptive information was collected, and between 1595 and 1600. A “Drawing for the entire Moscow State” appeared, called the “Big Drawing”.

Such a detailed map served primarily management purposes. Although some historians prioritize the diplomatic significance of the map, which showed the strength and power of the Russian state.

The size of the drawing was 3 arshins (2 m 14 cm), the scale was 75 versts in one vershok (1: 1,850,000).

SECOND LIFE FOR A BIG DRAWING

Around 1618

cartographic work came to life. And everything would have been fine, but in May 1626 there was a fire, after which the process of restoring the surviving documents and updating the old ones began with hard work. In 1627, the Discharge Order, which was in charge of the military forces, decided to create a copy of the “Big Drawing” untouched by fire, as well as to make an interpretation of it.

Over a long period of time, the “drawing” has become dilapidated - “In the future it will no longer be possible to look at the tracts from it.” The work was entrusted to Afanasy Mezentsov, who had previously shown himself well in cartographic activities.

It was necessary, according to the old bit description, to draw and decipher another map - the “Big Drawing of the Field”, which covered a narrow strip between the right tributaries of the Don and the left tributaries of the Dnieper from Perekop to Moscow along 3 southern strategic roads.

The former borders of our state

Mezentsov did the job flawlessly.

Unfortunately, both the copy of the “Big Drawing” and the “Big Drawing for the Field” have not survived to this day. However, an “explanatory note” on both maps has reached us, albeit in copies: “The Book of the Great Drawing,” published for the first time in 1773.

I. I. Novikov. It is an explanatory text that was used by institutions and employees of various ranks throughout Russia. Since the 18th century the book is interpreted as an official reference guide to geoinformation about European Russia and part of Western Siberia at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries.

Hydrographic information is especially valuable in it.

LEGACY OF THE BIG DRAWING

At the moment, “The Book of the Big Drawing” occupies a particularly honorable place in historical and geographical literature.

It brings together the results of research by thousands of hydrographers, topographers and surveyors of Russia in the territories of Eastern Europe, Western Siberia and Kazakhstan. Now it’s even difficult to imagine how the compilers of the “Big Drawing”, with the most modest instruments in their hands, traveled thousands of kilometers, filming and collecting valuable information for lands of millions of kilometers. sq. Moreover, the information received is basically correct and very clear for those times.

Later, based on the “Big Drawing,” a map was drawn up, on which Tsarevich F. worked.

B. Godunov. Based on it, they were also published in 1612–14. maps of Massa and Gerard in Holland. The last time the “drawings” were mentioned was in the list of cases of the Rank Order compiled by D.M.

Bashmakov in 1668

Tags: large drawing, maps of Russia, first map of Rus'

Ticket 23. Expansion of the borders of the Russian state in the 17th century.

A. Russian-Polish (Smolensk) War (1632-1634).

Azov
1. After the Time of Troubles, Russia began to establish international relations; Russian embassies were opened in many countries. Tsar Michael's father, Patriarch Filaret, also headed the Ambassadorial Order.
2. The most important goal of Moscow was the return of Smolensk, which was seized by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth according to the Deulin Truce of 1618.

The return of Smolensk was necessary to ensure the security of the country from the west. The government had been preparing for a war with Poland for a long time; the production of weapons, gunpowder, and supplies was increased, and Western fortresses were put in order. An alliance was concluded with Sweden.
3. In 1632, the Deulin truce expired, and in the same year the Polish king Sigismund III died, which weakened the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

At the Zemsky Sobor, it was decided to start a war to return Smolensk. Boyar Mikhail Shein was placed at the head of the army. The siege of Smolensk lasted for eight months, the city was ready to surrender to Russian troops, but at that time the Crimean Khan, by agreement with the Poles, crossed the Oka, and the new king, Vladislav, with a large army came to the aid of Smolensk. Many soldiers fled from near Smolensk, and Shein was forced to capitulate. At this time, Patriarch Filaret died, and the boyar nobility, who greatly disliked the capable and independent Shein, accused him of treason and insisted on execution.

In the summer of 1634, the peace Treaty of Polyanovsky was concluded: Smolensk and the Seversky lands remained in the hands of the Poles. Vladislav was paid an indemnity in the amount of 20 thousand.

rubles
4. Another serious problem for Moscow was the constant raids of the Crimean Tatars. In the 30s of the 17th century. To protect the southern borders, the cities of Tambov, Kozlov, small towns and fortresses were built. In the fight against the Turks and Tatars, the Cossacks played a prominent role.

In 1637, the Cossacks, on their own initiative, captured the Turkish fortress of Azov and reported this to Moscow, asking the tsar to accept the fortress. In 1641, the city was besieged by Turkish troops and fleet. The “Azov Sitting” lasted for about a year, but the Cossacks understood that they would not be able to resist the new offensive of the Turkish troops, and asked the tsar to take Azov under his authority. But Mikhail Fedorovich refused, fearing war with the Ottoman Empire.

Russian-Polish War 1654-1667 Annexation of Ukrainian and White-Russian lands
1. According to the Union of Lublin in 1569, as a result of which the Polish-Lithuanian state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was formed, Ukrainian and Belarusian lands were annexed directly to Poland.
2.

Polish magnates and gentry began to settle on Ukrainian lands. Thus, Prince Vishnevetsky owned 53 cities and villages of the Poltava region, Count Potocki owned the entire Nizhyn region.

The Polish lords had unlimited rights to the life and property of Ukrainian serfs. The peasants were called “cattle”, “khlops”, equating them to cattle and slaves.

The lords received from the royal authorities the right to execute the death penalty against their serfs. Polish officials oppressed Ukrainian artisans, and Polish merchants forced Ukrainian merchants out of the market.

Ukrainians were forcibly Polished, Polish was recognized as the official language, and national customs were persecuted. Catholicism was imposed, Orthodox rituals were prohibited. The people of southern Ukraine suffered from raids by the Crimean Tatars and Turks. All this hampered the development of Ukraine and Belarus and led to powerful uprisings against Polish rule.
3. There was also a force capable of leading anti-Polish protests - the Cossacks. The Cossacks were divided into city and Zaporizhian Cossacks. The head of the city Cossacks was the elected hetman.

They were included in the so-called register, i.e., a list of Cossacks who were in public service, guarding the borders from attacks by the Crimean Tatars. They received a salary and land from the king. But the register (a certain number) was constant, and the number of Cossacks grew.

Dissatisfied Cossacks organized their center - the Zaporozhye Sich (on the islands of the lower Dnieper, beyond the rapids).
4. In the 30s of the 17th century. In Ukraine there were numerous peasant and Cossack uprisings against Polish rule. They were brutally suppressed, part of the population moved to Russia, where a vast region was formed - Sloboda (free) Ukraine.
5.

In the spring of 1648, a new uprising began, led by the outstanding commander and statesman Bogdan Khmelnytsky. During 1648

Russian kingdom

in three battles, Khmelnitsky inflicted serious defeats on the Polish troops; All of Volyn and most of Podolia were liberated. Insurgent detachments of peasants appeared in the vicinity of Warsaw. The popular uprising spread to Belarus. In December 1648, Bogdan Khmelnytsky solemnly entered Kyiv.
After the death of King Vladislav II, Poland offered Khmelnytsky to conclude a truce.

The shortage of food and clothing, the outbreak of the plague, the hesitation of a certain part of the Cossack elders - all this forced Khmelnitsky to agree to a truce. He used the time of the truce to create the authorities of the nascent Ukrainian statehood.
As a far-sighted politician, Bogdan Khmelnytsky pinned special hopes on Russia in the liberation struggle of the Ukrainian people against the Polish gentry.

In June 1648, he turned to the Russian government with a proposal to reunite and jointly wage the fight against Poland. Russia, which at that time was experiencing economic difficulties and political complications due to popular uprisings, was not ready for military action with Poland. But it provided Ukraine with diplomatic, economic and military support.

Khmelnitsky entered into an alliance with the Crimean Khan. In the summer of 1649, the Ukrainian army and the forces of the khan completely defeated the army of King John Casimir near Zborov. The king proposed to start negotiations, but Khmelnitsky was ready to fight to the bitter end. However, the khan, bribed by the Poles, changed his mind and signed peace with them. Khmelnitsky was forced to start negotiations.
6. On August 8, 1649, the Peace of Zborov was concluded. But it did not suit both sides. The Polish nobility - because Khmelnytsky remained a real formidable force and now officially represented Ukraine, since by agreement the Polish king officially recognized Khmelnytsky as hetman.

It did not suit the broad masses because the Cossacks who were not included in the register, and these were the majority, again turned into subjects of their masters.
In the spring the uprising resumed. In the battle of Berestechko, the rebels were defeated due to the vile betrayal of the Crimean Khan.

The troops of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were stopped only in September near Bila Tserkva, where on September 18, 1651 a new treaty with Poland was signed. Its conditions were difficult for the Cossacks. The answer was new performances in the Dnieper region. In April 1653, Khmelnitsky again turned to Russia with a request to accept Ukraine “under the hand of Moscow.”
10 May 1653

The Zemsky Sobor in Moscow decided to incorporate Little Russia into Russia and declare war on Poland. In January 1654, the Ukrainian Rada in Pereyaslav took the oath of allegiance to the Russian Tsar. At the same time, Ukraine retained broad autonomy: it had an elected ataman, local government bodies, a local court, class rights of the nobility and Cossack elders, the right of foreign relations with all countries except Poland and Turkey, and a Cossack register of 60 thousand was established.
7.

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth did not agree with the reunification of Ukraine with Russia. In the summer of 1654, the Russian-Polish war began, which became protracted and ended only in 1667. The Truce of Andrusovo established the Dnieper as the border between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Russia. Left-bank Ukraine, together with Kiev, went to Russia, while Right-bank Ukraine and Belarus remained under Polish rule. The Zaporizhian Sich was governed jointly.

Smolensk, Chernigov, and Seversk land went to Russia. In 1648, the “Holy League” emerged: Austria, Poland, and Venice united against Turkey.

They invite Russia to join the league, to which it agrees, subject to the conclusion of peace with Poland. In 1686, the “Eternal Peace” was concluded between Russia and Poland, where the Truce of Andrusovo was confirmed.
8. Thus, the unification of the former lands of Kievan Rus began. The security of Ukraine was strengthened; it was easier to fight against Turkey in a single state. Russia's southern borders have become more secure.

Annexation of Siberia to Russia in the 17th century.
1. Russian people began to explore Siberia back in the 16th century, when, on the initiative of the Stroganov merchants, Ermak’s squad organized a campaign to Siberia. Over a vast territory - from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean by the beginning of the 17th century. Different peoples lived, but their numbers were small - 200 thousand people.

The Nenets tribes lived in the tundra. The Evenks lived east of the Yenisei. In the lower reaches of the Amur and on Sakhalin lived the Nivkhs, in the Kuril Islands - the Ainu, along the Lena River - the Yakuts, in the Baikal region - the Buryats and Mongols. Many peoples were still at the stage of the primitive communal system. And among the Yukaghirs, Koryaks, Chukchi, Kamchadals, who inhabited North-Eastern Siberia, social relations were at the level of the Stone Age. The process of feudalization was already underway among the Siberian Tatars and Buryats. Harsh climatic conditions hampered the development of this region.
2.

Siberia has long attracted Russia. The government sought to seize vast territories, introduce tsarist rule there and collect taxes. Merchants wanted to mine furs, industrialists were looking for ores of precious metals, peasants were interested in free land.
3. The Cossacks played a huge role in the advance to the East, from whose midst the explorers emerged.

In 1598, the Cossacks, equipped by the merchants Stroganovs, annexed Russia Western Siberia. In the first half of the 17th century. There is an active advance of Russian people into Siberia - Cossacks, military, hunters, servicemen. They built winter quarters and forts - Bratsky, Yakutsk, Tomsk, Yeniseisk, Krasnoyarsk, Kuznetsk, Nerchinsk, etc.

Siberian towns-fortresses become Russian administrative units. A stream of peasant migrants and fugitives poured into Siberia.

To establish a household, the state provided material assistance to the settlers. All lands were owned by the state, and peasants bore certain duties (taxes) for their use. Private ownership of land is not widespread here. By the end of the 17th century. Half of the population of Siberia was engaged in agriculture.
The local population was subject to a tax called “yasak”.

He surrendered the furs. In addition, he was assigned yam duties. The arbitrariness and violence committed by the tsarist commanders were the cause of frequent uprisings of local peoples.
In 1640

An expedition of Cossacks led by Ivan Moskovitin from Tyumen reached the shores of the Pacific Ocean.
4. In 1643, the expedition of the serviceman Vasily Poyarkov, leaving Yakutsk, made a difficult journey along the Lena, Aldan, crossed to the river system of the Zeya River and along the Amur reached the Sakhalin Bay.
5. The expedition led by the Cossack Semyon Dezhnev reached the Arctic Ocean along the Anadyr and Kolyma rivers, turned east and circled the Chukotka Peninsula along a then unknown strait.

Dezhnev never found out that he had discovered the strait between Asia and North America. Later the Strait was named the Bering Strait, and the northeastern tip of the Asian mainland was named after Dezhnev.
6.

In 1649-1653 An expedition to explore the Amur was organized, led by the Ustyug peasant Erofey Khabarov. He made campaigns on the Daurian lands of the Amur, swore in the local tribes and imposed taxes on them, but encountered resistance from the local peoples (Manchus) and was forced to leave the Amur.

For further advancement in the Amur region, the Nerchinsk fort was built in 1658. The “drawing of the Amur River” compiled by Khabarov became the basis for creating maps Eastern Siberia. The memory of this explorer is immortalized in the name of the city of Khabarovsk and the Erofey Pavlovich station. At the end of the 17th century. A detachment of the Siberian Cossack V.V. Atlasov made trips to Kamchatka, visited the Kuril Islands, and received information about Sakhalin.
7.

As a result of the campaigns of the pioneers, the Amur region was annexed to Russia, the local population was taxed, and Russian fortified towns were built. But China demanded that Russia give up these lands, clashes occurred with the Manchus, and attacks on Russian fortresses began. It was difficult for the Russian government to retain this region; it began negotiations with China.

In 1689, the Treaty of Nerchinsk was concluded, which defined trade and diplomatic relations and delimited the possessions of the parties. The terms of the agreement were revised only in the 19th century.
8.

The administration of Siberia was in charge of the Ambassadorial Prikaz, and then the special one - the Siberian Prikaz. The entry of Siberia into Russia had a positive meaning for the local tribes - under the influence of the Russian population, they began to develop agriculture and improve their tools.

The development of Siberian ores, gold, and salt mining began. Income from furs amounted to in the 17th century. 1/4 of all government revenues in Russia. Russian explorers and sailors made a great contribution to geographical discoveries in the East.

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Reign of Ivan the Terrible

In 1533, Vasily 3 died, passing the throne to his eldest son Ivan. Ivan Vasilyevich was 3 years old at that time. Until he came of age, he could not rule on his own, so the first years of his reign are characterized by the power of his mother (Elena Glinskaya) and the boyars.

Regency of Elena Glinskaya (1533-1538)

Elena Glinskaya was 25 years old in 1533.

To govern the country, Vasily 3 left a boyar council, but actual power ended up in the hands of Elena Glinskaya, who mercilessly fought against everyone who could lay claim to power. Her favorite, Prince Ovchina-Obolensky, carried out reprisals against some of the boyars of the council, and the rest no longer resisted Glinskaya’s will.

Realizing that a three-year-old child on the throne is not what the country needs, and that the reign of her son Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible could be interrupted without actually beginning, Elena decided to eliminate the brothers of Vasily 3 so that there would be no contenders for the throne.

Yuri Dmitrovsky was arrested and killed in prison. Andrei Staritsky was accused of treason and executed.

The reign of Elena Glinskaya, as regent of Ivan 4, was quite productive. The country has not lost its power and influence in the international arena, and important reforms have been carried out within the country.

In 1535, a monetary reform took place, according to which only the king could mint coins. There were 3 types of money at face value:

• Kopek (it depicted a horseman with a spear, hence the name).
• Money equaled 0.5 kopecks.
• Polushka was equal to 0.25 kopecks.

In 1538, Elena Glinskaya dies.

Assume. That it was a natural death is naive. A young and healthy woman dies at 30! Apparently, she was poisoned by boyars who wanted power. Most historians studying the era of Ivan the Terrible agree on this opinion.

Boyar rule (1538-1547)

At the age of 8, Prince Ivan Vasilyevich was left an orphan.

Since 1538, Rus' came under the rule of the boyars, who acted as guardians of the young king. Here it is important to understand that the boyars were interested in personal gain, and not the country and not the young king.

In 1835-1547 this was a time of brutal massacre for the throne, where the main warring parties were 3 clans: Shuisky, Belsky, Glinsky. The struggle for power was bloody, and all this happened before the eyes of a child. At the same time, there was a complete decomposition of the foundations of statehood and an insane devouring of the budget: the boyars, having received full power into their own hands, and realizing that this would last for 1013 years, began to line their pockets as best they could. Two sayings can best demonstrate what was happening in Rus' at that time: “The treasury is not a wretched widow, you can’t rob her” and “A pocket is dry, so a judge is deaf.”

Ivan 4 was strongly impressed by the elements of boyar cruelty and permissiveness, as well as a sense of his own weakness and limited power.

Of course, when the young king received the throne, there was a 180-degree turn in consciousness, and then he tried to prove everything that he was the main person in the country.

Education of Ivan the Terrible

The following factors influenced the upbringing of Ivan the Terrible:

• Early loss of parents.

  There were also practically no close relatives. Therefore, there really were no people who would strive to give the child the right upbringing.

• The power of the boyars. From his earliest years, Ivan Vasilyevich saw the strength of the boyars, saw their antics, rudeness, drunkenness, struggle for power, and so on. Everything that a child cannot see, he not only saw, but also took part in it.
• Church literature.

  The archbishop and later metropolitan, Macarius, had a great influence on the future king. Thanks to this man, Ivan 4 studied church literature, fascinated by aspects about the completeness of royal power.

In Ivan's upbringing, the contradictions between word and deed played a big role.

For example, all the books and speeches of Macarius spoke about the completeness of royal power, about its divine origin, but in reality, every day the child had to deal with the tyranny of the boyars, who did not even feed him dinner every evening. Or another example. Ivan 4, as a virgin tsar, was always taken to meetings, meetings with ambassadors and other state affairs.

There he was treated like a king. The child was seated on the throne, everyone bowed at his feet, talking about admiration for his power. But everything changed as soon as the official part ended and the king returned to his chambers. There were no longer bows, but the harshness of the boyars, their rudeness, sometimes even insulting a child.

And such contradictions were everywhere. When a child grows up in an atmosphere where one thing is said and another is done, it breaks all patterns and affects the psyche. This is what ultimately happened, because in such an atmosphere, how can an orphan know what is good and what is bad?

Ivan loved to read and by the age of 10 he could quote many passages from it. He took part in church services, sometimes even participating in them as a singer. He played chess quite well, composed music, knew how to write beautifully, and often used folk sayings in his speech.

That is, the child was absolutely talented, and with parental education and love could become a full-fledged personality. But in the absence of the latter, and with constant contradictions, the other side began to appear in it. Historians write that at the age of 12, the king threw cats and dogs from the roofs of the towers. At the age of 13, Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible ordered dogs to tear apart Andrei Shuisky, who, drunk and in dirty clothes, lay on the bed of the late Vasily 3.

Independent rule

Royal wedding

On January 16, 1547, the independent reign of Ivan the Terrible began. The 17-year-old youth was crowned king by Metropolitan Macarius. For the first time, the Grand Duke of Rus' was named Tsar. Therefore, we can say without exaggeration that Ivan 4 is the first Russian Tsar.

The coronation took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. The Monomakh cap was placed on the head of Ivan 4 Vasilyevich. Monomakh's cap and the title “Tsar” Russia becomes the successor to the Byzantine Empire, and the Tsar thereby rose above the rest of his subjects, including the governors. The population perceived the new title as a symbol of unlimited power, since not only the rulers of Byzantium, but also the rulers of the Golden Horde were called kings.

The official title of Ivan the Terrible after the coronation is Tsar and Grand Duke of All Rus'.

Immediately after the start of independent rule, the king got married.

On February 3, 1947, Ivan the Terrible took Anastasia Zakharyina (Romanova) as his wife. This is an important event, since the Romanovs will soon form a new ruling dynasty, and the basis for this will be Anastasia’s marriage to Ivan on February 3.

The autocrat's first shock

Having received power, without a regency council, Ivan 4 decided that this was the end of his torment, and now he is truly the main person in the country with absolute power over others.

The reality was different, and the young man soon realized this. The summer of 1547 turned out to be dry, and on June 21 a strong storm broke out. One of the churches caught fire and, due to strong winds, the fire quickly spread throughout wooden Moscow. The fires continued from June 21-29.

As a result, 80 thousand of the capital's population were left homeless.

Popular indignation was directed at the Glinskys, who were accused of witchcraft and starting a fire. When a maddened crowd rose up in Moscow in 1547 and came to the Tsar in the village of Vorobyovo, where the Tsar and the Metropolitan were taking refuge from the fires, Ivan the Terrible for the first time saw the uprising and the power of the maddened crowd.

Fear came into my soul and trembling into my bones, and my spirit was humbled.

Ivan 4 Vasilievich

Once again, a contradiction occurred - the king was confident in the limitlessness of his power, but he saw the power of nature that caused the fire, the power of the people who rebelled.

State administration system

The governance system of Russia under the reign of Ivan the Terrible should be divided into 2 stages:

• The period after the reforms of the Elected Rada.
• Oprichnina period.

After the reforms, the management system can be graphically depicted as follows.

During the Oprichnina period the system was different.

A unique precedent was created when the state had two control systems at the same time.

At the same time, Ivan 4 retained the title of tsar in each of these branches of government of the country.

Domestic policy

The reign of Ivan the Terrible, in terms of internal governance of the country, is divided into the stage of reforms of the Elected Rada and the oprichnina. Moreover, these systems of governing the country were radically different from each other. The entire work of the Rada boiled down to the fact that power should be with the tsar, but in its implementation he should rely on the boyars.

§ 61. Second period of the reign of Ivan IV. Internal activities (2)

Oprichnina concentrated all power in the hands of the tsar and his system of government, and relegated the boyars to the background.

During the time of Ivan the Terrible, great changes occurred in Russia. The following areas were reformed:

• Ordering the law.

  Code of Laws of 1550 was adopted.

• Local control. The feeding system was finally abolished, when local boyars lined their pockets rather than solve the problems of the region.

  As a result, the local nobility gained more power into their own hands, and Moscow gained a more successful tax collection system.

• Central management. A system of “Orders” was implemented, which streamlined power. In total, more than 10 orders were created that covered all areas of the state’s internal policy.
• Army. A regular army was created, the basis of which was archers, gunners and Cossacks.

The desire to strengthen his power, as well as failures in the Livonian War, led to Ivan the Terrible creating the Oprichnina (1565-1572).

We can further familiarize ourselves with this topic on our website, but for a general understanding it is important to note that as a result of this, the state actually went bankrupt. An increase in taxes and the development of Siberia began, as steps that could attract additional money to the treasury.

Foreign policy

By the beginning of the independent reign of Ivan 4, Russia had significantly lost its political status, since 11 years of boyar rule, when they cared not about the country, but about their own wallet, had an effect.

The table below shows the main directions of Ivan the Terrible’s foreign policy and the key tasks in each direction.

East direction

Here maximum success was achieved, although everything did not start out in the best way.

In 1547 and 1549, military campaigns against Kazan were organized. Both of these campaigns ended unsuccessfully. But in 1552 the city managed to take it. In 1556, the Astrakhan Khanate was annexed, and in 1581 Ermak’s campaign to Siberia began.

South direction

Campaigns were undertaken to the Crimea, but they were unsuccessful.

The largest campaign took place in 1559. Proof that the campaigns were unsuccessful is that in 1771 and 1572 the Crimean Khanate carried out raids on the young territories of Russia.

Western direction

To solve problems on the western borders of Russia in 1558, Ivan the Terrible begins the Livonian War.

Until a certain time, it seemed that they could end in success, but the first local failures in the war broke the Russian Tsar. Blaming everyone around for the defeats, he started the Oprichnina, which actually ruined the country and made it incapable of fighting.

As a result of the war:

• In 1582, peace was signed with Poland. Russia lost Livonia and Polotsk.
• In 1583, peace was signed with Sweden. Russia lost the cities: Narva, Yam, Ivangorod and Koporye.

Results of the reign of Ivan 4

The results of the reign of Ivan the Terrible can be characterized as contradictory. On the one hand, there are undeniable signs of greatness - Russia has expanded to enormous proportions, gaining access to the Baltic and Caspian seas.

On the other hand, economically the country was in a depressing situation, and this despite the annexation of new territories.

Map

Map of Russia towards the end of the 16th century

Comparison of Ivan 4 and Peter 1

Russian history is amazing - Ivan the Terrible is portrayed as a tyrant, usurper and simply a sick person, and Peter 1 is portrayed as a great reformer, the founder of “modern Russia”. In fact, these two rulers are very similar to each other.

Upbringing.

Ivan the Terrible lost his parents early, and his upbringing went on its own - he did whatever he wanted. Peter 1 - did not like to study, but loved to study the army. They didn’t touch the child - he did whatever he wanted.

Boyars. Both rulers grew up during a period of fierce boyar squabbling for the throne, when a lot of blood was shed. Hence the hatred of both for the nobility, and hence the approach of people without a family!

Habits.

Today they are trying to denigrate Ivan 4, saying that he was almost an alcoholic, but the truth is that this fully suits Peter. Let me remind you that it was Peter who created the “most jocular and most drunken cathedral.”

Murder of a son.

Ivan is accused of murdering his son (although it has already been proven that there was no murder and his son was poisoned), but Peter 1 also imposed a death sentence on his son. Moreover, he tortured him and Alexei died from torture in prison.

Expansion of territories. During the reign of both, Russia expanded significantly territorially.

Economy.

Both rulers brought the country to complete decline, when the economy was in a terrible state. By the way, both rulers loved taxes and actively used them to fill the budget.

Atrocities. Everything is clear with Ivan the Terrible - a tyrant and murderer - that’s what official history calls him, accusing the tsar of atrocities against ordinary citizens.

But Peter 1 was of a similar nature - he beat people with sticks, personally tortured and killed archers for rebellion. Suffice it to say that during the reign of Peter the population of Russia decreased by more than 20%. And this takes into account the seizure of new territories.

Similarities between these two people great amount. Therefore, if you praise one and demonize the other, perhaps it makes sense to reconsider your views on history.

According to the reconstruction of the chronology carried out by A.T. Fomenko and G.V. Nosovsky, in the 16th century Rus' extended over four continents and included the territories of Eurasia, northern Africa and more than half of the territory of Northern and South America.

After the collapse of Rus' at the beginning of the 17th century, the rulers of the new states created on its former territories began to rewrite history. This course of events now surprises few people - many are accustomed to it, because history in our time has been rewritten many times and continues to be rewritten.

The interpretation of history required by the authorities is a powerful tool for controlling the consciousness of society. The newly appointed rulers of the former territories of Rus' really wanted to forget about their subordinate position in the past and, more importantly, they wanted to hide the circumstances of their rise to power. After all, the split of a single country occurred through the overthrow of the legitimate leadership.

To give the appearance of legitimacy to the new government, Scaligerian historians had to invent a myth about the “Mongol-Tatar” conquest of the world. There are already a lot of materials confirming that this is indeed a myth; we refer those interested to the publications “We are dropping charges against the Mongol-Tatars...”, “What was covered up by the Tatar-Mongol yoke?”

Considering that the vast majority of the invented “Mongol-Tatars” were actually carriers of Rus genetics and they spoke Russian, it is even possible to determine the borders of Rus' in the 16th century based on official data. To do this, it is necessary to put on the map what the myth-makers of history were embarrassed to do. A.T. Fomenko and G.V. Nosovsky do this in their book “Calif Ivan”. They took two maps of Scaligerian historians: 1260 (Fig. 1) and 1310 (Fig. 2) and combined information from these maps, highlighting the “Mongol-Tatar” Empire in dark color (Fig. 3).

Rice. 1

Rice. 2

The result was an Empire as of the 14th century.

Further, the creators of the new chronology note an interesting fact - Scaligerian historians indicate with arrows the further advance of the “Tatar-Mongols” to Western Europe, Egypt, India, Japan, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, Burma, Indonesia, but they carefully limit themselves to this! There are arrows for the hikes, but the outcome of these hikes is missing. Like, there is no special outcome. Such caution is understandable, because if this result is plotted on a map, it will become very impressive. According to research by A.T. Fomenko and G.V. Nosovsky in the 16th century, the Empire also included significant territories of North and South America. The result of the conquest is shown in Figure 4.

There are many facts confirming the existence of Rus', which was huge by today’s standards in the Middle Ages. It is little known, but it is a fact that the French kings swore an oath on a sacred book written in Old Church Slavonic, and the Patriarch of Jerusalem presented Charlemagne with a cross covered with Russian inscriptions.

Another very significant example is given in the book by A.T. Fomenko and G.V. Nosovsky "Tatar-Mongol yoke: who conquered whom." The distances from the capital of Rus' - the city of Vladimir - to many capitals and cities of now other states, and previously governorships in the territories of the colonies of Rus', are subject to a certain pattern.

In order to determine exactly what pattern is observed in the distances from the capital of Rus' to the “regional centers,” let’s put ourselves in the place of the conquerors. But before doing this, we note one important circumstance - the level of development of civilization of the annexed territories was much lower than the level of Rus' (some lands were practically uninhabited), therefore large settlements we, as conquerors, will have to build ourselves.

In such a situation, it would be reasonable to place the centers of new governorships along the trade routes created at that time at a certain distance from the center of Rus' (Fig. 5). And so it was done.

This distance was chosen for reasons of establishing optimal communication in the field of trade, mail, and so on.

Many capitals lie on two circles with the center in the city of Vladimir (Fig. 6).

Rice. 6

The first circle with a radius of about 1800 km. The following cities are located on it: Oslo, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Bratislava, Belgrade, Sofia, Istanbul and Ankara. The second circle with a radius of 2400 km. It contains London, Paris, Amsterdam, Brussels, Luxenburg, Bern, Geneva, Rome, Athens, Nicosia, Beirut, Damascus, Baghdad, Tehran. And what is typical is that if you take any of the listed cities except Vladimir and make it the center of Rus', then nothing like this will happen.

From this we can conclude that the name of the city Vladimir has a very specific meaning - “Owner of the World”.

Falsification of history

After the collapse of Rus' into smaller states, the new authorities of Europe began to falsify their history, and their proteges in the rest of the Russian state - the Romanovs - began to rewrite the history of the Russian people. The falsification was full-scale. Europeans invented biographies of their rulers and new languages, exalted their contributions to the development of civilization, and renamed or distorted place names. The Russians, on the contrary, began to instill thoughts about the worthlessness of the Russian people, books containing true history were destroyed, and in return they made fakes, culture and education were distorted and destroyed. Geographical names familiar to the Russian ear migrated from Europe to remote areas on the territory of Rus'. And this, of course, is not all. Let us present a few illustrative facts.

The kings of Europe were written off from Rus'

Imagine the situation: the Empire is destroyed, in the breakaway territories there are new and, as they now say, “unshakable” authorities. What should they tell the new generation? The truth? No, it’s disgusting to remember that they were in a subordinate position and came to power not according to the law. You'll have to invent your past. And definitely great. To begin with, they came up with rulers. The simplest and most reliable option is to take as a basis the biographies of the ruling dynasties of Rus' and, on their basis, create fake histories of their monarchs and kings, but only with different names and with life events tied to the conditions of the newly created states.

This is exactly how the Western European Habsburg dynasty appeared, which is copied from the dynastic stream of the tsars-khans of Rus' of the 13th-16th centuries. Detailed description This basic dynastic parallelism is given in. We will limit ourselves to two drawings from the above book. Figure 7 shows “the correspondence between the Russian-Horde dynasty of the 13th-16th centuries and the Habsburg dynasties of the 13th-16th centuries.”

Rice. 7

Rice. 8

Figure 8 shows the “correlation of the duration of the reigns of the Russian-Horde king-khans of the Great = “Mongol” Empire of the 13-16 centuries and the rulers of the Habsburg Empire of the 13-16 centuries.” In order to recognize “dynastic clones” this is quite enough. But the book also contains unique repetitions in the life events of the clones and their prototypes.

Gothic is a Russian style

Interesting metamorphoses of architectural styles occurred in the 17th century. It is indicated that with the coming to power of the Romanovs in Rus', a change in architectural styles occurred. Moreover, the introduced samples were then passed off as “typical ancient Russian”. As a result, today's ideas about what Rus' looked like before the 17th century are in many ways completely incorrect.

We are now assured that the usual form of church is exactly that which we see in our time: a roughly cubic building with an almost flat roof, from which rise one or more domed drums. An example of a “typical view” of a Russian church is the St. Nicholas Church in the Nikolo-Uleymensky Monastery near Uglich (Fig. 9).

Rice. 9

Such churches are strikingly different from the cathedrals of Western Europe (for example, the Gothic Cologne Cathedral, Fig. 10). This difference was artificially imposed.

Rice. 10

It was beneficial to the falsifiers of history, since they needed to show that there was nothing in common between Russia and Europe.

However, A.T. Fomenko and G.V. Nosovsky cites facts that show that until the 17th century the main architectural style in Rus', as well as in its European provinces, was the Gothic architectural style. This suspicion first arose when they were studying the old architecture of churches in the famous Russian city of Uglich.

It turned out that all the churches in the city, with one exception, were either built anew or significantly rebuilt no earlier than the 17th century. The remake has a familiar appearance to us (Fig. 9).

The only exception is the famous Church of St. Alexei, Metropolitan of Moscow in the Alekseevsky Monastery. It is believed that it was built in 1482 and has remained in its original form - a house with a high gable roof on which three spire towers rise (Fig. 11, Fig. 12). The similarity of the architectural style of this church with the Cologne Cathedral is striking (Fig. 10).

Rice. eleven

Rice. 12

A reasonable question arises: there is a church from the 15th century, there are churches from the 17th century and later, but where are the churches of the 16th century? What, nothing was built for 100 years or did it fall apart “on its own”? The fact is that the Church of Metropolitan Alexei is a large cathedral of the 15th century, one of the largest in Uglich to this day. Having built such a cathedral in the 15th century, the people of Uglich had to build something in the 16th century! Quite rightly, the impression arises that all the churches of Uglich in the 17th century were rebuilt anew, and only the Church of Metropolitan Alexei, by the will of fate, remained and is now the “black sheep” among the remodel.

To confirm their assumption, the authors of the book give the following example, for which they turn to the architecture of the famous old Russian Nikolo-Uleymensky monastery near Uglich. There are two churches there. One of them is the old Church of the Introduction (Fig. 13, Fig. 14).

Rice. 13

Rice. 14

Unlike the new one, “typically ancient Russian,” the old one is a house with a gable roof, which is reminiscent of the Gothic style. Later, in the 17th century, a “quadrangle” was added to it and a bell tower was built on.

There is a clear feeling that in the 17th century the overwhelming majority of the old Russian-Horde churches were rebuilt according to the reformist “Greek model”. Moreover, it was stated that this was the case.

In some places in Russia, by inertia, Gothic cathedrals continued to be built even until the 18th century. For example, the Church of Peter and Paul in Yaroslavl (Fig. 15), dating back to 1736-1744.

Rice. 15

A mosque was built in the same style in the village of Poiseevo, Aktanysh district of the Republic of Tatarstan (Fig. 16).

Rice. 16

But ultimately, under the Romanovs, the Gothic style was supplanted and forgotten. Churches of this type were either destroyed and rebuilt, or they tried to change their appearance with extensions, or adapted them for other needs. For example, household ones. A striking example is the old long huge house with a gable roof, standing in the New Simonov Monastery in Moscow (Fig. 17), which in the 19th century was used as a grain drying room.

Rice. 17

Its architecture exactly matches the appearance of old Russian church-houses. This may be a former monastery church.

Other examples of churches in the Gothic architectural style:

Rice. 18

— Old Russian church in the village of Bykova (Fig. 18);

— New St. Nicholas Cathedral in the Mozhaisk fortress in 1814 (Fig. 19);

— An ancient church in the Luzhetsky monastery of Mozhaisk, which probably also looked like a Gothic house (Fig. 20);

— Mosque in Starye Kiyazly, Republic of Tatarstan (Fig. 21);

— Mosque in Nizhnyaya Oshma, Republic of Tatarstan (Fig. 22).

And to conclude this topic, we will give one example of the correspondence between the styles of the Russian and German churches. Figure 23 shows the German church Clementskirche in the city of Mayen, near Bonn.

Its dome is made in the form of upward spirals. It is believed that the dome of this shape was created between 1350 and 1360. The reasons for such a design of the dome are completely forgotten, and instead of them a story was invented about the devil who twisted this tower with a corkscrew.

According to the authors, here we are actually faced with the old style of Russian-Horde architecture of the 14th-16th centuries. If we compare the dome of the German Clementskirche with the spiral domes of St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow (Fig. 24), we will immediately understand that here and there are the same style.

Tower-minarets decorated with spirals have also been preserved in the East and Asia...

The organ is a Russian instrument

Scaligerian historians paint the image of a Russian person in the form of a rude man in bast shoes and earflaps. It goes without saying that we are not talking about any high culture in general and musical culture in particular. All we are given is simple dancing around the fire, primitive obscene ditties, a tambourine, spoons, the shrill squeak of pipes and the strumming of a balalaika, or, in extreme cases, a harp. All this is infinitely far from the exquisite Versailles with lace, violins and organs.

In fact, none of this is true. Let's take an organ, for example. Before the arrival of the Romanovs in Rus', the organ was a widespread instrument, but with their coming to power, the struggle against Russian cultural heritage began - organs were banned. And after Peter I was replaced by a double, the total eradication of organs even from Russian household life began!

Let us turn to the evidence of contemporaries of the “cultural cleansing”, which is cited by A.T. Fomenko and G.V. Nosovsky in his book.

In 1711, “Journey through Muscovy to Persia and India” by the Dutch traveler Cornelius de Bruin, who visited Moscow in 1700, was published in Amsterdam. At the same time, the Italian Philip Balatri was in Moscow, who “to his surprise discovers: in many houses there are organs of the original design, but for some reason they are hidden in closets. Later we find out: Peter banned them as a heritage ancient Rus'. The wedding of the jester Shansky near Kozhukhov in 1697 was perhaps the last Moscow folk festival with 27 organs...”

“The music makes no less an impression. De Bruin hears it everywhere - oboists, horn players, timpani players in military formations and during ceremonial processions, entire orchestras of a wide variety of instruments right up to the organ at the triumphal gates, on the streets and in houses, and finally, the amazingly harmonious sound of singing ensembles. Not a single holiday in Muscovy was complete without this.”

“...with the founding of St. Petersburg, the number of organists among free musicians sharply decreased. There are still organists in Moscow, but there are almost none of them in St. Petersburg anymore. Fashion and the personal taste of Peter I did their job. The death in the Moscow fire of 1701 of the old, excellently established Kremlin workshop of organs and harpsichords had an impact. They did not restore it - Peter had other tastes for the actual development of the Kremlin. Nobody took on the new workshop. There are fewer musicians among the owners of Moscow courtyards. Unemployment? Creeping poverty? This is not so difficult to verify using another type of accounting for the lives of city residents - carefully recorded and taxed acts of purchase and sale. And this is what was discovered: organists changed their profession..."

But in the West, organs have survived to this day and were retroactively declared an exclusively Western European invention...

Germany is Great Perm

Let's once again put ourselves in the shoes of history falsifiers who are trying to hide the great past of Rus'.

The empire collapsed, and many names of cities and territories of the breakaway provinces sound in Russian and are firmly entrenched in the chronicles. What to do? It is possible to destroy all chronicles and prohibit the use of old names of European provinces. Is it effective? No - it’s long and laborious. It’s easier to take a well-known name, make a sign with the inscription “city N” and put it in some wilderness, declaring that it has always been this way. And the Europeans themselves will happily forget about Russian influence. And so they did. Therefore falsification geographical location affected not only the “Mongols” with Mongolia, which on paper was transferred to the border of China. It contains very interesting information about what territory was actually called Great Perm.

The Perm land is often mentioned in chronicles, which report that it is a militarily powerful state, very rich. It is located near Ugra. Ugra is Hungary in old Russian style. In Russian, Ugrians are people who speak Finno-Ugric languages. In the history of the Middle Ages, only one militarily strong Ugric state is known - Hungary. It is believed that the Perm land was finally annexed to Rus' only in the 15th century.

The book contains the following chronicle information, somewhat distorted by modern historians: “The Novgorodians, making military trade campaigns through the Perm land into the Yugra land ... forced the Komi (in fact, Perm, since the chronicles say exactly Perm, not Komi - approx. Nosovsky and Fomenko) to pay tribute. Since the 13th century, Perm land has been constantly mentioned among the Novgorod volosts. Novgorod “men” collected tribute with the help of centurions and elders from the top of the local population; Local princes also continued to exist, retaining a certain amount of independence... the Christianization of the region carried out by Bishop Stefan of Perm (in 1383... founded the Perm diocese, compiled the alphabet for the Zyryans).”

“In 1434, Novgorod was forced to cede part of its income from the Perm land to Moscow... In 1472, Perm the Great was annexed to Moscow... local princes were relegated to the position of servants of the Grand Duke.”

Thus, the Perm land had its own princes, who were independent sovereigns until the 15th century. She had her own bishop and her own special alphabet.

What do Scaligerian historians tell us? The Great Soviet Encyclopedia indicates: “Perm land is the name in Russian chronicles of the territory west of the Urals along the Kama, Vychegda and Pechora rivers, inhabited by the Komi people (in the chronicles - Perm, Permyaks, and also Zyryans).”

Firstly, the Komi people living along the Kama River (Komi and Kama are the same root words) do not call themselves either Permyaks or Zyryans! These names were assigned to the Komi already under the Romanovs. The fact is that the city of Perm until 1781 was just a village and was called... Egoshikha! According to official data, the village of Yegoshikha appeared in the 17th century. The name Perm was given to Yegoshikha shortly after the suppression of the “Pugachev rebellion,” which in fact was nothing more than a civil war between Muscovy and Great Tartaria, after which Great Tartaria ceased to exist and the memory of her was destroyed. In the same year as Perm - 1781 - Vyatka appeared, but this is a topic for a separate story...

Secondly, the above encyclopedia says that “the Komi people did not have their own written language.” According to other sources, for worship in the Komi language in the 17th century, a writing system based on the Cyrillic alphabet was used, but not the alphabet of Stephen of Perm! Where did the alphabet go and why doesn’t anyone remember the enlightener Stefan? Yes, there was no special alphabet in Stefan’s Yegoshikha, but more on that below.

Thirdly, the Great Soviet Encyclopedia reports that “the economy of the Komi region remained subsistence for a long time... in the 17th century in the entire region there were only two settlements Yarensk and Turya, one trading village of Tuglim... Only gradually, in the 17th and especially 18th centuries, did it develop trade and local markets are emerging.” By the beginning of the 20th century, “the Komi-Permyaks were a small nation... doomed to the complete loss of their national culture... During the years of Soviet power, a literary language and writing were created.” Are there signs of a militarily powerful and wealthy principality here? We don't see them at all. There was nothing to reign over there until the 17th century - Yegoshikha didn’t even exist.

Fourthly, let’s take a map of Europe and see how the Novgorodians (Novgorod is Yaroslavl) made “military trade campaigns through the Perm land to the Ugra land” (that is, to Hungary) and remember Karamzin’s strange story: “The Mongols spread more and more their conquests through Kazan Bulgaria reached Perm itself, from where many inhabitants, oppressed by them, fled to Norway.” What are these “zigzags of luck”?

Great Perm, we emphasize the word “Great”, which clearly indicates its great importance, could not be where she was placed under the Romanovs.

Where was she then? A.T. Fomenko and G.V. Nosovsky provide justification that Great Perm is actually the territory of Southern Germany, Austria and Northern Italy.

This is indicated by some clear traces in geographical names. For example, in Northern Italy the ancient city of Parma is famous, the name of which clearly sounds like Perm. And in the capital of Austria, the city of Vienna, St. Stephen's Cathedral still stands (Fig. 25).

Rice. 25

Maybe it was the famous Stefan of Perm, the enlightener of Perm? The word Germany is possibly a variant of the word Perm.

Then it becomes clear why the alphabet of St. Stephen was forgotten in the history of the Komi people and the village of Yegoshikha. And here we can assume that this alphabet was Latin and it was it that was distributed among Europeans for the cultural demarcation of Europe and Rus'...

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Calif Ivan / A.T. Fomenko, G.V. Nosovsky. — M.: Astrel:AST; Vladimir: VKT, 2010. - 383 p.

Tatar-Mongol yoke: who conquered whom / A.T. Fomenko, G.V. Nosovsky. — M.: Astrel:AST; Vladimir: VKT, 2010. - 380 p.

"The Advisor" is a guide to good books.

From the article by Alexey Kulagin “The Split of Rus'”.

How did the borders of Muscovite Rus' change during the reign of Ivan the Terrible? This is best told by maps showing the borders of Russian lands at the beginning and end of his reign.

Russia under Ivan the Terrible expanded its territory, capturing the Volga along its entire length, annexing the Kazan and Astrakhan Khanates. This allowed Russian merchants to sail to Persia and trade with the countries of Central Asia. However, not everything planned by Tsar Ivan was realized during his reign. Thus, the Russian state needed access to the Baltic Sea, but the lands of the Baltic states were seized by German knights back in the 13th century. Having started the Livonian War, Ivan the Terrible put an end to the Livonian Order, but one enemy was replaced by another: Sweden and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth entered the war against Russia. The Semigrad governor Stefan Batory, elected with the assistance of the Turkish Sultan to the Polish throne, began campaigns in 1379 with the aim of capturing the western regions of Rus'. At this time, the Swedes captured the important trading port of Narva for the Russians. In 1581, Batory besieged Pskov, but the heroic defenders of the city managed to repel the attack of the enemy hordes, which forced Batory to enter into peace negotiations. Russia was forced to cede the Baltic states to the Poles, and the annexation of the Baltic states to Russia was realized only in the 18th century.

The annexation of the Volga region also created the preconditions for further development of lands in the east. Now the path lay in Siberia, which attracted huge reserves of furs. In the 50s of the 16th century, the Siberian Khan Ediger recognized himself as a vassal of Russia, but Khan Kuchum, who then came to power, broke off these relations. The merchants and industrialists Stroganovs played a major role in the advance to Siberia, who received extensive possessions along the Kama and Chusovaya rivers. To protect their possessions, they built a number of fortified cities and created military garrisons populated by “hunting people” - Cossacks. Around 1581-1582 (there is disagreement regarding this date), the Stroganovs equipped a military expedition of Cossacks and military men from the cities beyond the Urals. The head of this detachment (about 600 people) was Ataman Ermak Timofeevich.

Having crossed the Ural Mountains, he reached the Irtysh, and a decisive battle took place near the capital of Kuchum - Kashlyk. The Khan's multi-tribal army could not withstand the Cossack onslaught and fled. Ermak entered Kashlyk and began to collect yasak (tribute) from the Siberian inhabitants. However, the victory of the Cossacks turned out to be fragile, and a few years later Ermak died. His campaign did not lead to the direct annexation of Siberia, but a beginning was made for this. Since the second half of the 80s, cities and fortresses have been built in the western part of Siberia: Tyumen, Tobolsk fort, Surgut, Tomsk. Tobolsk becomes the administrative center of Siberia, where a governor was appointed.

Upon ascending the throne, John inherited 2.8 million square meters. km, and as a result of his rule, the territory of the state almost doubled - to 5.4 million square meters. km - a little more than the rest of Europe. During the same time, the population grew by 30-50% and amounted to 10-12 million people.

Both cards are clickable. Scale - 1:12 000 000

1. The Russian state in the year of Ivan the Terrible’s accession to the Grand Duke’s throne in 1545.

It is worth noting the inaccuracy on the second map - in 1581 the Swedes captured Ivangorod, Yam and Koporye. In 1583, the Russian state was forced to sign the difficult Truce of Plus, according to which almost all the lands near the Gulf of Finland, including the indicated fortresses, were ceded to Sweden. The Moscow government could not come to terms with such a development of events. In 1590, hostilities resumed. Russian troops managed to regain the lost fortresses. Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, who took personal part in the campaign, wrote to the Danish king: “Sowing the winter of his fatherland in the suburban lands of the cities of Ivangorod and Yama. They took Koporya.” In 1591, the Swedes made an unsuccessful attempt to recapture Koporye. So, in January 1591, the Swedes, numbering 14 thousand people, approached the fortress, but were forced to retreat. In 1595, an “eternal peace” was concluded between Russia and Sweden.

Thus, the second map reflects the boundaries as of 1590, not 1584.

2. The Russian state in the year of the death of Ivan the Terrible in 1584

His son became the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily III. He inherited three-quarters of the state's possessions and received the exclusive right to power.

Convening of the Zemsky Sobor. The assembled representatives of the regions, together with the tsar, will have to outline a number of serious measures to improve public administration and the judicial system, as well as prepare a new "Code of Law"(adopted in 1550). Creation of unified management bodies (orders) for finance, military and foreign affairs. Limitation of the power of governors: they are placed under the control of elected representatives and must gradually be replaced by elders, also elected. The first land accounting in order to establish the amount of taxes levied. Local government reform.

Sebezh (Russian-Lithuanian War, 1534-1537). Russian fortress, built in 1535 to protect the southern borders of the Pskov region. On February 27, 1536, the Polish-Lithuanian army under the command of the Kyiv governor A. Nemirovich (20 thousand people) tried to take Sebezh. The fortress was defended by a garrison under the command of governor P.V. Zasekin and Tushina. Nemirovich began the attack by shelling the fortifications. However, his guns performed poorly. Without causing any harm to the besieged, they mainly attacked their own people. In the end, the Sebezh garrison made a sortie and inflicted a complete defeat on the Lithuanians. Their remnants retreated to Lake Sebezh, trying to escape to the other side. But the ice beneath them broke, and most of the warriors found themselves under water. Nemirovich's army was almost completely destroyed. After this defeat, the Lithuanian prince Sigismund I entered into negotiations with Moscow on a truce. It was concluded in 1537. In honor of the Sebezh victory, the ruler of Russia Elena Glinskaya ordered the foundation of the Church of the Life-Giving Trinity in the fortress.

Siritsa (Russian-Livonian War, 1500-1503). A river in the Izborsk region, near which on August 27, 1501, a battle of the Russian army took place under the command of princes V.V. Shuisky and Penko Yaroslavsky (40 thousand people) with the Livonian army under the command of Master V. Plettenberg (10-12 thousand people). Despite their significant numerical superiority, the Russians did not have enough firearms. The Germans had good artillery and experienced gunners who decided the outcome of the battle. The Russians fled from the battlefield from accurate and frequent fire, although without any significant losses. After this victory, the Germans besieged Izborsk, which repelled their attack. On September 7, they burned the Ostrov fortress, killing 4 thousand people there. However, soon mass dysentery began in the Livonian army, forcing Plettenberg (he also fell ill) to stop the campaign and return home (see Gelmed, Battle of Pskov).