Conventional signs, crosses, scale of topographic survey. Rough road sign Meaning of the blue arrow on the construction plan

As sad as it may sound, our roads are far from ideal. Both negligent officials and difficult climatic conditions can be blamed for this. Although if you remember Finland or Holland, where the climate is even more severe and the asphalt is smooth as glass, all questions disappear.

Poor-quality road surfaces lead to the fact that the car’s transmission deteriorates much faster; moreover, shock vibrations negatively affect all components of the car. The only way to combat the negative effects is to slow down in time.

But you can’t constantly look under the hood. Therefore, in most cases, the driver finds out about the bad road surface when the wheel falls into a hole. It's okay if this happens at low speed, but at high speed everything can end extremely sadly.

There are often cases when, due to bad roads and high speed, drivers lost mufflers or even wheels. Moreover, a sudden impact can cause the engine to stall. Considering that there is another car driving behind, this situation could result in an accident. Only a quick reaction and clear movements can help in case of engine failure.

Attention ! To avoid damaging your car or getting into an accident, there is a “Rough Road” sign.

This designation warns the driver that there will soon be a section that may have holes, potholes and other signs of good work by the local administration. Of course, the “Rough Road” sign is not present everywhere where the road surface is poor, so you need to be doubly careful when you see it.

History of road signs

The first road signs appeared on the streets of Paris in 1903. These were square signs. The background was black or blue, while the characters themselves were drawn in white. But in the process of evolution, this concept was changed to the opposite.

Oddly enough, the “Rough Road” sign was one of the first to appear on the city streets. Although this is easily explained by the fact that there were not so many good roads at that time.

Every year there were more and more cars on city roads. This led to an increase in the number of road accidents, in order to somehow combat this danger, a conference was held in 1909 among representatives European countries, whose main task was to solve this problem. Exactly on it the first convention was adopted that regulated the movement of cars at the international level.

What is a “Rough Road” sign and what does it look like?

The serial number of the “Rough Road” sign in the traffic rules is 1.16. This designation on the side of the road may indicate not only holes and potholes, but also, for example, the presence of a rut ahead. That is why, to maintain safety, it is necessary to be doubly careful when detecting it.

The “Rough Road” sign itself looks like a white triangle with a red border on each side. Below there is a schematic representation of the irregularities. It is made in black and looks a bit like waves. You can see it in more detail in the image below.

Meaning and correct interpretation

Knowing what a “Rough Road” sign means is not enough to take correct action when it is detected. It is necessary to understand exactly when the problem road surface will begin.

If such a designation is located within the city, then holes and potholes will begin after 50-100 meters. Outside the city limits you will have to drive at least 150 m before it starts to shake.

Attention! In some cases, a different distance to the problem section of the road is allowed. But in this situation, the “Rough Road” sign is supplemented by plate 8.1.1.

Table 8.1.1 will indicate exactly when rough road. So you won't have to worry about the condition vehicle. After all, reducing speed minimizes the damage the car receives from driving on uneven surfaces.

Many drivers are interested in why the distance to the problem area when installing the “Rough Road” sign is different in the city and outside it. It's actually quite simple. If you believe the statistics, then outside the city limits, the average vehicle speed is much higher. Accordingly, it takes more time to slow down.

Actions of the driver upon seeing the “Rough Road” sign

The integrity of the vehicle, as well as safety, depends on how correctly the driver acts when he sees the “Rough Road” sign. The algorithm of actions should be as follows:

1. Reduced speed.
2. View the quality of the road surface. This precaution will allow you to avoid the most problematic areas.
3. Monitoring road markings. Sometimes paying too close attention to irregularities leads to a loss of vigilance and driving into the oncoming lane.

Compliance with these simple instructions when you see the “Rough Road” sign, it will allow you, without creating an emergency, to easily reach your final destination of the trip.

Results

Of course, this road sign plays a significant role in traffic control. Its main task is to warn the driver about the difficult section that lies ahead. Special meaning has where you will find this symbol. If within the city, the distance to the problem area will be about 100 meters, on a country road it will be 150 or more.

MUNICIPAL BUDGETARY INSTITUTION OF ADDITIONAL EDUCATION

"CENTER FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH TOURISM

AND EXCURSIONS" BRYANSK

LESSON SUMMARY ON THE TOPIC:

DEVELOPED: teacher d/o

Stasishina N.V.

Bryansk - 2014

Plan - outline

classes on the topic

« Conventional signs topographic maps".

Purpose of the lesson: Give an idea of ​​the symbols of topographic maps.

Lesson objectives:

To familiarize students with the concept of conventional signs and its varieties;

Involve circle members in systematic sports activities;

Develop skills in teamwork and joint search for solutions;

Continue to promote the development of logical thinking, memory and

students' attention;

Equipment: 1. posters with symbols.

2. cards with test tasks.

Type of classes: Learning new material.

Literature: 1. Aleshin V.M. “Tourist topography” - Profizdat, 1987

2. Aleshin V.M., Serebrenikov A.V., “Tourist topography” - Profizdat, 1985

3. Vlasov A, Ngorny A. - “Tourism” (educational manual), M., Higher

school, 1977

4. Voronov A. - “Tourist’s Guide to Topography” - Krasnodar., Publishing House, 1973

6. Kuprin A., “Topography for everyone” - M., Nedra, 1976.

Lesson plan

Preparatory part. (3)

New topic explained: (45)

Presentation of new information.

3. Consolidation of the studied material. (8)

4. Summing up the lesson. (2)

5. Organizational moment. (2)

Progress of the lesson.

1. Preparatory part:

Students take their places at their desks, prepare writing materials

The teacher announces the topic, goals and objectives of the lesson, explains the requirements and lesson plan, and checks those present.

Note

to be ready for

occupation, uniform

clothes for those involved.

2. Explanation of a new topic:

Statement of new information:

Today in class we will look at a new topic:

"Conventional signs of topographic maps."

The map has many names printed in ordinary words, numbers, lines and many icons of different colors, sizes and shapes. This topographical symbols, which indicate local objects on the map.

What are conventional signs?

Conventional signs are symbols with the help of which the actual terrain is depicted on the map.

Topographers came up with special symbols so that they would be as similar as possible to the local objects themselves, and would correspond in size to them on the map scale. So, for example, a forest on topographic maps is depicted in green (after all, it is actually green); houses and other buildings are depicted as rectangles, since when viewed from above, they really almost always have the shape of rectangles; rivers, streams, lakes are depicted in blue, since water, reflecting the sky, also appears blue to us. But it is not always possible to accurately depict every local object on the map in terms of shape, color and size. Let's take, for example, a highway whose width is 20 m. On a hundred thousandth map (1 mm 100 m) such a road would have to be depicted with a line one-fifth of a millimeter thick, and on a map of scale 1:200000 this line would have to be drawn even further thinner - 0.1 mm. Small but important local objects are depicted on topographic maps with special out-of-scale signs, that is, such signs that do not correspond to the actual sizes of local objects, reduced according to the scale of a particular map. For example, a small spring on the river bank is depicted on the map as a blue circle with a diameter of a whole millimeter; In addition, highways and other major roads are colored on maps so that they, as they say, are striking to everyone who picks up a topographic map. For example, an asphalt highway is depicted on a map with a bright red line.

The symbols used in drawing up sports maps for orienteering competitions are somewhat different from topographical ones. Their main purpose is to give the athlete the information about the terrain that he needs when choosing a path of movement. These are signs showing the passability of forests, swamps, paths, etc. So, for ease of reading while running, sports card, unlike topographical, it is not the forest that is painted over, but open space - fields, meadows, clearings in the forest. All topographical symbols can be divided into four types:

1) linear- these are roads, communication lines, power lines, streams, rivers, etc. That is, these are signs of such local objects that themselves have the form of long lines;

Write the topic on the board.

Students write down a new topic in their notebook.

2) curly- these are signs of towers, bridges, churches, ferries, power plants, individual buildings, etc.;

3) area - these are signs of forests, swamps, settlements, arable lands, meadows - that is, local objects that occupy significant areas of the earth's surface. Area signs consist of two

elements: contour and sign filling the contour;

4) explanatory- these are signs characterizing the forest, names of settlements, railway stations, rivers, lakes, mountains, etc.,

this is the width of the highway, the length, width and load-carrying capacity of bridges, the depth of fords on rivers, and the like.

Almost all linear and figured signs are non-scale, and area signs, as a rule, exactly correspond to the true sizes of local objects. It is easier to study and remember signs by getting to know them in groups, which are formed according to the type of local objects:

group No. 1 - roads and road structures;

group No. 2 - settlements, buildings;

group No. 3 - hydraulic network (that is, water on the ground);

group No. 4 - vegetation;

group No. 5 - relief;

Group No. 6 - explanatory and special tourist signs.

Group No. 1. Roads and road structures

This group includes eleven most important topographical signs.

All roads can be divided into three main types: railways for train traffic, highways and unpaved roads.

Highway are called roads that have hard artificialcovering - stone (cobblestones, paving stones), asphalt or concrete. The highway sign is out-of-scale. Every SCO signseine road an additional sign is given on the map- alphabetic digital characteristic consisting of three elements: numbers, one more number in brackets and a letter. The first number indicates the width of the highway surface in meters (that is, paved, pavednirovanny or stone-covered part of the highway), and in bracketsa figure is given indicating the width of the entire highway surface in meters, that is, together with the roadsides. The letter denotes the material with which the highway is covered: if it is asphalt, then the letter “A” is put, if it is concrete, then the letter “B”, and if the highway is covered with buskier or paving stones (i.e. stone), then the letter “K”.

Next type highways - ground, earthen roads without artificial surface. All dirt roads are divided into three types: simple dirt roads (they are also called field or forest roads), country roads, and so on.

called improved dirt roads (abbreviated as UGD). An improved dirt road is also an earthen road, but has a slightly convex shape for better water flow, ditches along the sides and a gravel or crushed stone fill compacted with a roller.

Nobody specially lays paths; they arise spontaneously.fight from the constant walking of people. In densely populated areasRarely can an entire network go in the same direction at oncepaths that then close, then again diverge. So manyIt is impossible to depict the number of paths on the map, so the groupthe trail is shown by one conditional trail in the corresponding directionlenition. Only long enough and permanently existing (sometimes called “centuries old”) trails are markedon large scale maps. The trail sign is almost like thisthe same as a simple dirt road - a thin black intermittentdashed line, but every strokehas a shorter length.

Railways previously iso flogged with two thin blackparallel lines, clearance between which was filled inalternating black and white shanecks. Now signis a continuousthick black line. Two koRotkikh stroke across the signa railway means that it ishas two tracks. If there is only one track, then one line is added. If the cross stroke has anothera small stroke parallel to the railway sign, then I know that Read that the road is electrified.

At the sign railway station A black rectangle inside a white rectangle is placed on the side of the railway where the station building (station building) is located.

Bridges. On simple dirt roads, as a rule, wooden bridges are built; on highways, improved dirt roads and on important country roads, bridges are most often made of concrete (stone). On railways there are large bridges across large rivers They are always metal, and across small rivers they are concrete. Topographic signs of bridges are shaped and non-scale signs.
Where a bridge sign is placed on the map, the road and river signs are broken (Fig. 37). An explanatory sign for bridges is the alphanumeric characteristics of the bridge. For example: DZ =
(24 - 5)/10. Here the letter “D” denotes the material from which the bridge is built - wood (if the bridge is concrete, the letter is written

"TO"). Coefficient 3 is the height of the bridge above the surface of the water in the river. In the numerator of the fraction, the first digit, 24, is the length of the bridge in meters, the second digit, 5, is its width in meters. In the denominator, the number 10 shows the load capacity of the bridge in tons, that is, what is the maximum weight of the machine the bridge is designed for design.

Bridges are often also made on hiking trails, but very small ones - only for pedestrians. Such bridges (residents often call them either treasures or lavas) are sometimes simply two logs laid over a river from bank to bank. The topographic sign for a pedestrian bridge is very simple.

Very often the roads intersect with small dry

ravines, hollows through which streams flow only in the spring, when the snow melts. When building a road, an embankment is made across the ravine, under which a concrete pipe is laid for

Students write down in their notebooks.

Symbols are sketched in a notebook

highway

Simple dirt road

Country road

Improved dirt road

Railway

Bridge

Pedestrian bridge

water flow. Such pipes have their own topographic sign.

Group No. 2. Settlements, individual buildings

This group contains fifteen most important topographical signs. The settlements themselves - villages, auls, hamlets, towns, cities - are complex formations, consisting of various buildings and structures. Therefore, there is no simple topographical sign of a populated area - it consists of topographical signs of various local objects that make up what is called a populated area.

Separate residential and non-residential buildings are depicted by an out-of-scale black rectangle. If the structure is very large in area, and the map is large-scale, then the structure is depicted as a black figure, similar in shape and size (on the map scale) to the structure itself. That is, this is already a large-scale sign. Often, at some distance from a village or town, there is a residential building with its own vegetable garden, orchard, and outbuildings.

For such a separate yard, or farm, there is a special topographic sign.

In populated areas, there are neighborhoods with a predominance of wooden (non-fire-resistant) and stone (fire-resistant) buildings. Topographic sign quarter of the village limited to thin black lines. Inside it, a background is either yellow (if wooden buildings predominate in the block) or orange (if fire-resistant stone buildings predominate in the block). On the background there are black rectangles - out-of-scale signs of individual houses, buildings or large-scale signs of individual large buildings. Next to the signs of some buildings their characteristics are given. For example: "SHK." - school, “SICK.” - hospital, “EL-ST.” - power plant, "SAN" - sanatorium.

The topographic fence sign is the thinnest black line on the map. This sign is often found on maps in the form of a broken closed line, which indicates some kind of fenced area.

If an industrial enterprise is depicted on a small-scale map, then it is necessary to use an out-of-scale sign of a plant (factory) with a pipe (meaning a tall pipe that can serve as a landmark visible at a fairly large distance) or without a pipe. Next to the sign is an abbreviated explanatory sign characterizing the type of product manufactured by the enterprise. For example: “brick” - brick factory, “flour.” - flour mill, “boom.” - paper mill, "sah." - sugar factory, etc.

If an industrial enterprise occupies a large area, then the usual large-scale signs are used, showing all or almost all buildings and structures on its territory: a fence, a factory building, workshops, warehouses, etc., while a half-blackened one is also placed here.

diagonally, an out-of-scale plant sign.

pipe under the road

Separate buildings

Khutor

Urban development

Plants and factories

Inside a populated area there may bechurch, monument or a monument cemetery . A cemetery can be small or large, with or without trees. PoeTherefore, to depict a cemetery, both large-scale andand an off-scale sign. On hikes and travels you can findeven in a deep forest there is a separate yard where he lives

forester and his family. Forester's house has its own topographic sign - an ordinary non-scale sign of a separate building with the inscription “forest.”

Important landmarks can be the various buildings basheared type- water towers, fire towers, silos. They are indicated by one out-of-scale sign, next to which an explanation is often given of what kind of tower it is.

Good landmarks are also high wooden towers, most often standing on the tops of hills, with an observation platform at the very top, where a ladder leads. These are the so-called triangulation points(they are called trigopunks for short). Next to the trigopoint sign on the map there is always some number that indicates the height of the base of the tower above the level of the Baltic Sea in meters and centimeters.

A sign resembling bricks stacked on top of each other - peat mining, that is, the place where peat is mined.

And the last of this group are very important local items, topographic signs which you need to know are communication lines and power transmission lines (PTL).

Communication lines are indicated on all maps, regardless of the nature of the connection, by a thin black line with black dots on it. The communication line sign is drawn on the map as the communication line itself goes on the ground.

Power lines(power lines) are on wooden poles or on metal and concrete supports. The power line sign consists of a thin black line on which dots or dashes with arrows are located at intervals of one centimeter.

If the power line is laid on wooden poles, then dots are placed, if on metal or concrete supports - short, thick lines.

Group No. 3. Hydrography

There are 8 basic signs in this group that you need to know.

While traveling on foot, tourists constantly “communicate” with the surface waters of the earth - they set up camp on the banks of rivers and lakes, lay routes along rivers, ford them, overcome swamps, ditches, and use springs to cook food over fires.

One of the main topographical signs of this group is river sign- can be both large-scale and non-scale (across the width of the river). The sign of a wide, large river consists of two elements - the outline of the coastlines of the river (as well as the coastline of the islands, if any), which is drawn with a thin blue line, and the fill sign - a blue background depicting the surface of the river, that is, the space occupied by water.

Church

monument

forester's house

tower

trig point

peat mining

Communication line

Power lines

big river

Out-of-scale sign small river or stream is a simple thin blue line, which, however, gradually thickens from source to mouth.

There are streams that “live” only in spring and early summer, and then the water in them disappears. This peresflowing streams and rivers. The sign of such streams and rivers is a thin blue, but not solid, but a broken line

Information about where the river flows and what the speed of the current is will also be provided by topographic map an explanatory sign of hydrography - a black arrow showing the direction of the river flow, and numbers placed in the middle of the arrow and showing the flow speed in meters per second.

Sea, lake, pond are depicted in the same way: the contours of the banks are shown with a thin blue line, and the water mirror is shown with a blue background.

In densely populated areas, wells located in populated areas are shown only on very large-scale maps (terrain plans). Sign well- a blue circle with a blue dot in the center.

Water sources(springs, springs) are also shown on topographic maps only when they do not dry up and have a significant amount of water. The sign of the source (spring) is a blue circle. If a constant stream flows from a spring, it is shown with the appropriate sign. If the water soon goes back into the ground, the stream sign is not shown.

Swamps There are two types: passable and difficult to pass (or even completely impassable), through which it is dangerous to move and it is better to avoid it. Accordingly, there are two signs of swamps: short blue horizontal strokes, grouped in the shape of irregular rhombuses - this is a passable swamp, but solid horizontal blue strokes - an impassable swamp. The boundaries of the swamps are outlined by a black dotted line.

And the last sign of this group is ditches, the signs of which are thin blue lines. This sign is similar to the sign of an ordinary stream, but its shape is sharply different from it: the line of the stream is always smoothly winding, while the lines of ditches are broken with long, smooth sections without bends.

Group No. 4. Vegetation

This group includes 15 topographical signs, most of which are area and, therefore, large-scale signs.

The first sign is land boundaries, that is, areas occupied by one or another natural or artificial vegetation. Every forest has an edge, and every field, meadow, and swamp has an edge. These are their boundaries, which are shown on topographic maps with a small dotted black line. But the boundaries of the land are not always shown with a dotted line: if there is a road right along the edge of the forest or along the edge of the arable land, meadow, then the sign of this road replaces the boundary sign, that is, the road itself already delimits the forest from the field, the field from the meadow, the meadow from the swamp, etc. d. If a garden or cemetery is surrounded by a fence, then the fence is the boundary.

When carried out land boundaries with a dotted line (or some other sign) - that is, their contours are given, on both sides of the border a filling sign is given - a background and other icons that show what exactly the contour is occupied with, what kind of vegetation is in it.

Sign forests- green background. If the forest is old (as they say - ripe), then the background is made dark green, and if the forest is young (forest growth) - lightlo green. The same is depictedparks in populated areas.
It is important to know not only that this is a forest, but also what it is like - what kind of things are in itthe types of trees that grow, how densely they grow.
There are special explanatory signs for this
- characteristics tree stand. These signs representare images of small trees,signatures and numbers next to them. If in this forest(or parts of the forest) are dominated by coniferous trees,small Christmas trees are drawn on a green background, and if deciduous trees predominate - small birch trees, whose right sidethe crowns are made blackened. If the forest is mixed, both a Christmas tree andbirch tree Abbreviated signature on the leftsigns indicate what types of needlesTrees and deciduous trees predominate here.

The fraction to the right of these icons means the following: the numerator of the fraction is the average height of the trees in this forest in meters, the denominator is the average thickness of the trunks at the level of a person’s head in meters, and the coefficient behind the fraction is the average distance between the trees (that is, the density forests).

Found in forests clearings- long forest corridors. Such clearings are cut (cut) specifically so that the forest is better ventilated and illuminated by the sun. Most often, the clearings are made mutually perpendicular: some run from north to south, others cross them from west to east. Clearings come in different widths: from 2-3 to 10-12 m, and sometimes they are very wide - up to 50 meters or more. Such large clearings are made to lay gas pipelines, oil pipelines, highways and railways, and high-voltage power lines through forests.

Clearings divide the forest into blocks, and each forest block has its own number. At the intersections of the clearings there are quarter poles, on the edges of which these numbers are written in paint. Not every clearing has a road; there are very overgrown clearings, which are even more difficult to navigate than straight through the forest. But the topographic sign of the clearing exactly corresponds to the sign of a simple dirt road - a thin black dashed line. A number indicating its width in meters is also placed here.

For young growth forests, in addition to the light green background, an additional fill sign is used: small black circles go in rows along the background, but their rows are located at 45° to the map frames .

Orchards are also depicted with a green background with rows of small black circles, but here their rows go at 90° to the frames of the card.

Forest deforestation shown on a white background. The mark that fills the contour of the cutting is black vertical strokes arranged in a checkerboard pattern with a short black horizontal stroke at the lower end.

Sign woodlands also, as a rule, located on a white background in the form of black circles with a tail at the bottom, which is always directed to the east.

Large-scale topographic maps show separate groupsbushes in the form of a black circle with three thickened black dots along the outer edge. This is a non-scale sign. If the bushes occupy significant areas of the area, they are already shown as a contour (dotted line), which is filled inside with a light green background, and circles with three dots are scattered across the background in a random order.

Narrow strips of forest are depicted on maps without a green background as a chain of black circles. This is an out-of-scale forest belt sign. If the forest strip is wide enough for a given map scale, then it is depicted with a regular forest sign. There are also narrow strips of bushes (hedges). They are represented by an off-scale sign - a chain of small black circles alternating with thickened dots.

Along the roads there are often specially planted trees, forming a kind of green corridor along the road (alley). These are linings that are shown on maps as small black circles on the sides of the road.

Freestanding trees(not in the forest, but in the field), if they are large and have the significance of landmarks (that is, clearly visible from all sides at a sufficiently large distance), they are also indicated on topographic maps by their off-scale sign .

Meadows have their own sign: small black quotation marks are placed in a checkerboard pattern inside the contour delimiting the meadow. Meadows can occupy very large spaces and can stretch in narrow ribbons in the floodplains of rivers. Small clearings in the forest are also meadows. The sign of a passable swamp is almost always combined with the sign of a meadow, because such a swamp is always covered with grass.

Along the edges of the villages there are vegetable gardens The vegetable garden sign has in the recent past undergone major change: the old sign was oblique shading with solid and dashed lines in black, going in one direction or the other. New vegetable garden sign - gray background.

The last sign of this group, sign arable land,

This is a white background with a black dotted outline.

Group No. 5. Relief

The surface of our planet is very rarely flat. On any plain there are always at least small elevations and depressions: hills , mounds, depressions, ravines, pits, cliffs along river banks. All this taken together represents the topography of the area. Relief is set of irregularities earth's surface. All irregularities can be easily divided into two types - convexity and concavity. Convexities are considered to be positive landforms, and concavities are considered negative landforms. Positive forms of relief include: mountain, hill (hillock), ridge, hill, mound, dune, sandy moving hill); to negative - basin, lowland, valley, gorge, ravine, beam, ravine, pit. Forms: reliefs always alternate in space: every positive form smoothly or abruptly turns into a negative one, and a negative one sharply or smoothly turns into a neighboring positive one.

It is customary to share flat terrain according to the nature of the relief by three type:lightly crossed, moderately crossed and strongly crossed terrain. The degree of ruggedness depends both on the frequency of alternation of convexities and concavities (ascents and descents), and on their height and steepness: where the “ruggedness” of the relief is stronger, that is, where ravines, hills, basins, gullies are more common, and where they are especially high (deep) and their slopes are steeper, the terrain is considered very rugged.

Each relief form has three parts (elements): the top or gold (for positive forms), the bottom (for negative forms), the bottom (for positive ones), the edge or edge (for negative ones) and the slopes or walls for both.

Slopes- a common element of both negative and positive relief forms. They are steep, steep (sharp) and gentle (smooth). Depending on the predominant slopes of the hills and lowlands in a given area, we say: there is a soft and smooth relief here, or there is a sharp, hard relief here.

There are two main ways to convey relief forms on maps: smooth, soft forms are depicted by so-called horizontal lines - thin brown lines, and sharp, hard forms - by a special line with jagged edges. These teeth, like any triangles, have a base and vertices. Where the tops of the teeth are directed, the slope descends there - it goes down almost a vertical cliff. To make it easy to distinguish a steep slope of natural origin from artificial cliffs on the map, jagged lines of cliffs are made in two colors - brown (natural cliffs along river valleys, ravines, etc.) and black (artificial embankments, dams, quarry slopes, etc. .). Next to the cliff signs there is a number indicating the length of the cliff in meters.

Pits and mounds can be naturalmi and artificial. They can bevery deep (high), but small in area, and then they have todepict out-of-scale on mapssigns. If they are significantny dimensions in area, then showing them indicated by scale marks (Fig. 74). The number next to the sign of the mound and pit also indicates their depth and height.

Embankments and excavations along the road are also depicted on maps as a jagged line, but in black color, since they are artificial structures. Where the teeth are directed with their sharp ends away from the railway or highway bed, the road goes along the embankment, and where they are directed on the contrary, towards the road bed, along the excavation. The numbers indicate the highest heights of these slopes.

At the sign career, As a rule, an abbreviated caption is given on the maps, specifying what exactly is being mined in this quarry.

More complex rigid forms of relief are ravines, which are formed in loose sedimentary rocks under the influence of soil erosion by streams of rainwater and during snowmelt. Ravines are a “living” phenomenon; they are born, grow and gradually die. While the ravine is “young” (it is called ravine), its slopes are very steep, but gradually they crumble - they flatten out, become overgrown with turf, bushes, the ravine stops growing and turns into beam (logs)well, a hollow). A ravine has a top, bottom and mouth. From one ravine to the sides can have side ravines with their tops - their called screwdrivers ravine But screwdrivers, in turn, canmultiply, forming intricate branching.

Small River

Drying river

Sea, lake

well

spring, key

clearings

Orchard

felling open forest

bushes

Casing

Meadows

Hard landforms

Pits and mounds

Embankments and excavations

Career

Two typical representatives of soft landforms - antipodes Hill(tubercle) and basin(depression). You cannot show them with a jagged line on the map, since their slopes are gentle and smooth.

If you horizontally “cut”, dissect the figure of a hill into even “slices”, then the entire slope of the hill will be surrounded by several closed lines of “cuts” - horizontals. And if you then draw these lines on paper, you will get a figure that gives an idea of ​​​​the relief (Fig. 78). You just need to use short strokes on the horizontal lines to show in which direction the slopes go down, since exactly the same figure will be obtained if you cut through the basin with horizontal planes. Such strokes, showing the direction down from the horizontal, are called berg strokes or slope indicators (in German, “berg” means mountain).

This method of depicting soft landforms on maps andIt's called the method of contour lines. Beyond the beginning of the secants of the relief horizonThe plane of the Baltic Sea level is adopted for the tal planes.The next cutting plane is drawn, for example, 10 m higherlevel of the Baltic Sea, after another 10 m in height there is a second cutting plane, then, 10 m above it, a third (already at a height30 m above sea level), etc. This distance (h) between planes cutting the relief is called the height of the relief section and can be different: 2.5 m, 5 m, 10 m, 20 m, etc.

Each cutting plane will give on the map its own closed relief section line - a horizontal, and all together they will give a complete drawing of contours - a general picture of the terrain. But since there will be a lot of contour lines on the map, in order not to get confused in them, to make it easier to distinguish and trace them, we decided to highlight some of the contour lines a little - to make every fifth one thicker. Then the contour lines on the map, as they say, are better readable. Thus, with a section height of, for example, 5 m, the thickened horizontal will be the horizontal located 25 m above the level of the Baltic Sea; the next thickened one is 50 m above sea level, etc.

In addition, on some horizontal lines, in convenient places, numbers are written in brown, which indicate the height of this horizontal line in meters above sea level, or, as is customary in topography to call this value, the horizontal mark. The very number of the mark of one or another horizontal line, in addition to the berg strokes, helps to understand in which direction the slope goes down: where this number has a bottom, that’s where the slope goes down, and where there’s a top, that’s where the slope goes up. In addition, marks are placed on the tops of mountains and hills. The side of the hill, which is steeper, will be depicted on the map as contours located close to each other, and the other, flat side of the hill, on the contrary, will be depicted as sparse contours.

Between the tops of two neighboring hills that have a common base, there is always a depression. This depression is called a saddle. And under the saddle on
On the slopes of hills, gullies and ravines most often appear - hard forms of relief are always difficult to combine with
soft.

Group No. 6. Special signs

They try to place the labels of names on maps so that they do not cover important objects, and at the same time, they still have to make, for example, a gap in the signs of the road network where the signature of a settlement or the name of some other place is superimposed on the road sign local subject.

Signatures of the names of settlements are always made horizontally (direction west - east) in different fonts - in some places the letters of the inscription are thicker and taller, in others they are thinner and have a slight slope. Through such a difference in font, certain information is communicated to the map reader: approximate
number of inhabitants in a locality. Where there are more residents, there is a larger signature. Under each name of a settlement there are numbers that indicate the number of buildings (yards) in this village or town. Next to these numbers there are letters in some places

“SS”, indicating that in this locality there is a village council, that is, a local government authority.

On their own homemade maps and diagrams, tourists often enter special symbols showing the route traveled by the tourist group and its direction, travel routes, places of overnight and day stays, places of daytime stops for lunch, and places of interest along the route.

3. Consolidation of the studied material.

1. What are symbols?

2. How many groups can topographic symbols be divided into?

3. List these groups?

4. List what is considered linear?

5. List what applies to areal types?

6. How many groups are topographic signs divided into?

4. Summing up the lesson.

The teacher draws conclusions, evaluates the activities of the students, and gives instructions for the next lesson.

5. Organizational moment.

The teacher tells further plans for the coming week.

Conventional signs There are contour, linear and non-scale.

• Contour(area) signs lakes are shown, for example;
• Linear signs- rivers, roads, canals.
• Off-scale signs on the plans, for example, wells and springs are noted, and on geographical maps— populated areas, volcanoes, waterfalls.

Rice. 1. Examples of off-scale, linear and areal symbols

Rice. Basic symbols

Rice. Conventional signs of the area

Isolines

There is a separate category of symbols - isolines, i.e. lines connecting points with the same values ​​of the depicted phenomena (Fig. 2). Lines of equal atmospheric pressure are called isobars, lines of equal air temperature - isotherms, lines of equal heights of the earth's surface - isohypses or horizontal lines.

Rice. 2. Examples of isolines

Mapping methods

To depict geographical phenomena on maps, various ways. By way of habitats show areas of distribution of natural or social phenomena, for example animals, plants, and some minerals. Traffic signs used to show sea currents, winds, and traffic flows. High-quality background show, for example, states on political map, A quantitative background— division of a territory according to any quantitative indicator (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Cartographic methods: a - method of areas; b - traffic signs; c - method of high-quality background; d - quantitative background - dotted signs

For display average size phenomena in any territory, it is most advisable to use the principle of equal intervals. One way to get the interval is to divide the difference between the largest and smallest indicator by five. For example, if the largest indicator is 100, the smallest is 25, the difference between them is 75, its 1/5 is -15, then the intervals will be: 25-40, 40-55, 55-70, 70-85 and 85-100 . When showing these intervals on a map, a lighter background or sparse shading depicts less intensity of the phenomenon, darker tones and dense shading depict greater intensity. This way cartographic image called cartogram(Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Examples of cartograms and map diagrams

To the method map diagrams are used to show the total magnitude of a phenomenon in a particular territory, for example, electricity production, the number of school students, fresh water reserves, the degree of arable land, etc. Map diagram called a simplified map that does not have a degree network.

Relief depiction on plans and maps

On maps and plans, the relief is shown using contour lines and elevation marks.

Horizontals, as you already know, are lines on a plan or map connecting points on the earth’s surface that have the same height above ocean level (absolute height) or above the level taken as a reference point (relative height).

Rice. 5. Image of the relief with horizontal lines

In order to depict a hill on a plan, you need to define it relative height, which shows how vertically one point on the earth’s surface is higher than another (Fig. 7).

Rice. 6. Image of a hill on a plane

Rice. 7. Determination of relative height

The relative height can be determined using a level. Level(from fr. niveau - level, level) - a device for determining the difference in height between several points. The device, usually mounted on a tripod, is equipped with a telescope adapted for rotation in a horizontal plane and a sensitive level.

Conduct hill leveling- this means taking measurements of its western, southern, eastern and northern slopes from the bottom to the top using a level and driving in pegs in the places where the level was installed (Fig. 8). Thus, four pegs will be driven in at the bottom of the hill, four at a height of 1 m from the ground if the height of the level is 1 m, etc. The last peg is driven in at the top of the hill. After this, the position of all the pegs is plotted on the area plan and a smooth line connects first all points that have a relative height of 1 m, then 2 m, etc.

Rice. 8. Leveling a hill

Please note: if the slope is steep, the horizontal lines on the plan will be located close to each other, but if it is gentle, they will be far from each other.

Small lines drawn perpendicular to the horizontal lines are berg strokes. They show in which direction the slope goes down.

Horizontal lines on the plans depict not only hills, but also depressions. In this case, the berg strokes are turned inward (Fig. 9).

Rice. 9. Depiction of various relief forms by horizontal lines

Steep slopes of cliffs or ravines are indicated on maps by small teeth.

The height of a point above mean ocean level is called absolute height. In Russia, all absolute heights are calculated from the level of the Baltic Sea. Thus, the territory of St. Petersburg is located above the water level in the Baltic Sea by an average of 3 m, the territory of Moscow - by 120 m, and the city of Astrakhan is below this level by 26 m. Elevation marks on geographical maps indicate the absolute height of the points.

On physical map The relief is depicted using layer-by-layer coloring, that is, with colors of different intensities. For example, areas with a height from 0 to 200 m are painted green. At the bottom of the map there is a table from which you can see which color corresponds to which height. This table is called height scale.

Sign 1.16 shows two bumps on the road. Road sign 1.16 “Rough Road” warns the driver that he is approaching a section of the road with a poor surface, with holes, potholes and other irregularities. The driver, upon seeing the “Rough Road” sign, must slow down and be prepared to maneuver to avoid potholes or to smoothly drive through any uneven road surfaces.
All the potholes on the road are this road sign cannot be marked, so if the sign is installed, it means there really is an emergency section of the road ahead or it is being repaired.
It is worth understanding that if a wheel falls into a hole at high speed, it can lead to serious damage to both the wheels and the car’s suspension. Many small holes at high speed can cause loss of vehicle control or an unexpected change in trajectory.

Sign 1.16 is set

In the locality: at a distance of 50-100 meters before the start of the rough road.

Outside the populated area: at a distance of 150-300 meters before the start of the rough road.

Outside the populated area, this sign is installed together with the following signs:

1.25 - Road works.

The sign indicates that road work is being carried out. As a result of road works, the road may be uneven. When installing sign 1.25, sign 1.16 must be on a yellow background.

8.2.1 - Coverage area.

Indicates the length of a dangerous section of the road, in this case an uneven road surface.

Symbols of topographic maps provide complete information about the area. They are generally accepted and used for topographic maps and plans. Topographic maps are important material not only for tourists, but also for geodetic organizations, for authorities who are involved in area planning and transfer of site boundaries.

Knowledge about conventional signs helps not only to read the map correctly, but also to draw up detailed plans of the area, taking into account new objects that have appeared.

Topographic maps are a type of geographic map. They carry detailed information about the layout of the area, indicating the location of various technical and natural objects relative to each other.

Topographic maps vary in scope. All of them carry less or more detailed information about the area.

The map scale is indicated on the side or bottom of the map. It shows the ratio of sizes: indicated on the map to natural. Thus, the larger the denominator, the less detailed the material. Let's say a 1:10,000 map will have 100 meters in 1 centimeter. To find out the distance in meters between objects, use a ruler to measure the segment between two points and multiply by the second indicator.

1. The most detailed is topographic plan terrain, its scale is 1:5,000 inclusive. It is not considered a map and is not as accurate, since it does not take into account the assumption that the earth is round. This somewhat distorts its information content, however, the plan is indispensable when depicting cultural, everyday and economic objects. In addition, the plan can also show micro-objects that are difficult to find on the map (for example, vegetation and soil, the contours of which are too small to be depicted in other materials).
2. Topographic maps at scales of 1:10,000 and 1:25,000 are considered the most detailed among maps. They are used for household needs. They depict populated areas, industrial facilities and facilities Agriculture, roads, hydrographic network, swamps, fences, boundaries, etc. Such maps are most often used to obtain information about objects in areas that do not have significant forest cover. They depict business objects most reliably.
3. Maps with scales of 1:50,000 and 1:100,000 are less detailed. They schematically depict the contours of forests and other large objects, the image of which does not require much detail. Such maps are convenient to use for air navigation, drawing up road routes and so on.
4. Less detailed maps are used for military purposes to carry out assigned tasks for planning various operations.
5. Maps with a scale of up to 1:1,000,000 allow you to correctly assess the overall picture of the area.

Having decided on the task at hand, the choice of material seems absolutely not challenging task. Depending on how detailed information about the area is needed, the required map scale is selected.

Working with a topographic map requires a clear knowledge of the schematic designation of the depicted objects.

Types of symbols:

• areal (scale) - for large objects (forest, meadow, lake), their sizes can be easily measured on a map, correlated with scale and obtained the necessary information about depth, length, area;
• linear - for extended geographical objects, the width of which cannot be indicated, are drawn in the form of a line corresponding to the scale in order to correctly display the length of the object (road, power strip);
• off-scale - they are used to designate strategically important objects, without which the map will be incomplete, but in a rather conventional size (bridge, well, individual tree);
• explanatory - characterizing an object, for example, the depth of a river, the height of a slope, a tree that indicates the type of forest;
• depicting landscape components: relief, rocks and stones, hydrographic objects, vegetation, artificial structures;
• special - applied to maps for individual sectors of the economy (meteorological, military signs).

The designations of topographic maps in certain cases, especially for certain groups of objects, allow for some conventions:

• basic information conveyed by the image settlement– building density and placement of object boundaries; for this it is not necessary to mark every building; you can limit yourself to main streets, intersections and important buildings;
• the symbols of a group of homogeneous objects allow the depiction of only the outermost of them;
• when drawing a line of roads, it is necessary to indicate their middle, which must correspond to the situation on the ground, and the width of the message object itself should not be displayed;
• strategically important objects such as factories and factories are designated at the site where the main building or factory chimney is located.

Due to the correct placement of signs on the map, you can get a detailed idea of ​​the relative position of objects on the ground, the distance between them, their heights, depths, etc. important information.

The map must be objective and this requirement includes the following provisions:

• correctly selected standard symbols, if this special card, then the designations must also be generally known in a certain area;
• correct representation of line elements;
• one card must be drawn in one image style;
• micro-objects must also be marked exactly; if there is a certain number of such objects of the same size in the area, they must all be marked with the same sign on the map;
• the color indicators of the elements of the relief forms must be maintained correctly - heights and lowlands are often depicted with paints, next to the map there should be a scale that shows what height on the terrain a particular color corresponds to.

Symbols of topographic maps and plans are drawn in accordance with uniform rules.

So:

1. Object sizes are displayed in millimeters. These signatures are usually located to the left of the symbols. For one object, two numerical indicators are given, indicating height and width. If these parameters match, one signature is allowed. For round objects their diameter is indicated, for star-shaped signs - the diameter of the circumscribed circle. For an equilateral triangle, the parameter for its height is given.
2. The thickness of the lines should correspond to the scale of the map. The main objects of plans and detailed maps (factories, mills, bridges, locks) are marked with lines of 0.2–0.25 mm, the same designations on small-scale maps from 1:50,000 - with lines of 0.2 mm. The lines indicating secondary characters have a thickness of 0.08–0.1 mm. On plans and large-scale maps, signs may be enlarged by one third.
3. The symbols of topographic maps must be clear and readable, the spaces between inscriptions must be at least 0.2–0.3 mm. Strategically important objects can be slightly increased in size.

Separate requirements are put forward for the color scheme.

Thus, the background color should ensure good readability, and symbols are indicated by the following colors:

• green - designations of glaciers, eternal snow, swamps, salt marshes, intersections of coordinate lines and hydrography;
• brown – landforms;
• blue – water bodies;
• pink – highway interline clearances;
• red or brown - some signs of vegetation;
• black – shading and all signs.

1. Objects indicated by off-scale symbols on topographic maps and plans must correspond to their location on the ground. To do this, they need to be placed according to certain rules.

The position on the ground corresponds to:

• the center of the sign of objects of regular shape (round, square, triangular) on the plan;
• middle of the base symbol– for perspective displays of objects (lighthouses, rocks);
• vertices of the designation angle - for icons with an element of right angles (tree, pillar);
• the middle of the bottom line of the sign is for designations in the form of a combination of figures (towers, chapels, towers).

Knowledge of the correct placement and application of signs will help you correctly draw up a topographic map or site plan, making it understandable to other users.

The designation of groups of objects by symbols must occur in accordance with the rules below.

1. Geodetic points. These objects should be indicated in as much detail as possible. Marking the centers of points is applied exactly to the centimeter. If the point is located on an elevated area, it is necessary to note the height of the mound or mound. When drawing the boundaries of land surveys, which are marked on the ground with pillars and numbered, the numbering must also be displayed on the map.
2. Buildings and their parts. The outlines of buildings must be mapped in accordance with the structure's layout and dimensions. Multi-storey and historically important buildings are depicted in most detail. The number of floors is indicated starting from two floors. If a building has an orientation tower, it must also be displayed on the map.

Small buildings, such as pavilions, cellars, building elements, are displayed at the request of the customer and only on detailed maps. The numbering of buildings is reproduced only on large maps. Additionally, letters can indicate the materials from which the building is constructed, its purpose, and fire resistance.

Conventional signs usually identify buildings under construction or dilapidated, cultural and religious buildings. Objects on the map must be placed exactly as in reality.

In general, the detail and detail of the description of the characteristics depends on the purpose of drawing up the map and is negotiated by the customer and the contractor.

1. Industrial facilities. The number of floors in buildings does not matter. More important objects are administrative buildings and pipes. For pipes over 50 meters, it is necessary to indicate their actual height.

At enterprises that have mines and extract minerals, it is customary to designate objects located on the surface. Mapping of underground routes is carried out in agreement with the customer, indicating working and non-working branches. For quarries, a numerical designation of their depth is required.

1. Railways are shown with their gauge. Inactive roads must also be marked on maps. For electrified roads and tram tracks, a power line must be displayed nearby.

The map shows the designation of road slopes, embankments and their heights, slopes, tunnels and their characteristics. Dead ends, turning circles and road ends must be marked.

Highways are marked with a certain sign, which depends on the surface. The roadway must be marked with a line.

1. Hydrographic objects are usually divided into three groups:

• permanent;
• indefinite - existing all the time, but whose outlines often change;
• unstable - changing depending on the season, but with a pronounced source and direction of the channel.

Permanent bodies of water are depicted by solid lines, the rest - by dash-dotted lines.

1. Relief. When depicting the terrain, horizontal lines or contour lines are used indicating the heights of individual ledges. Moreover, lowlands and elevations are depicted in a similar way, using strokes: if they go outward, then an elevation is depicted, if inward, it is a depression, beam or lowland. In addition, if the contour lines are close to each other, the slope is considered steep; if it is far away, it is gentle.

A good topographic map should be extremely accurate, objective, complete, reliable and clearly indicate the contours of objects. When drawing up a map, it is necessary to take into account the customer's requirements.

Depending on the purposes for which the topographic map is intended, some simplifications or minor distortions of minor objects are allowed, but the general requirements must be met.