"Conventional signs of topographic maps." Rough road sign How canals are indicated on the map

All objects on the ground, the situation and characteristic landforms are displayed on topographical plans conventional signs.

Conventions for topographic surveys

There are four main types into which conventional signs are divided:

1. Explanatory captions.
2. Linear symbols.
3. Area (contour).
4. Non-scale.

Explanatory captions are used to indicate additional characteristics of the depicted objects: for a river, the speed of the flow and its direction are indicated, for a bridge - the width, length and its load capacity, for roads - the nature of the surface and the width of the roadway itself, etc.

Linear symbols (symbols) are used to display linear objects: power lines, roads, product pipelines (oil, gas), communication lines, etc. The width shown on the topoplan of linear objects is off-scale.

Contour or area symbols represent those objects that can be displayed in accordance with the scale of the map and occupy a certain area. The contour is drawn with a thin solid line, dashed, or depicted as a dotted line. The formed contour is filled with symbols (meadow vegetation, woody vegetation, garden, vegetable garden, bushes, etc.).

To display objects that cannot be expressed on a map scale, off-scale symbols are used, and the location of such an off-scale object is determined by its characteristic point. For example: the center of a geodetic point, the base of a kilometer pole, the centers of radio, television towers, pipes of factories and factories.

In topography, displayed objects are usually divided into eight main segments (classes):

1. Relief
2. Mathematical basis
3. Soils and vegetation
4. Hydrography
5. Road network
6. Industrial enterprises
7. Settlements,
8. Signatures and borders.

Collections of symbols for maps and topographic plans of various scales are created in accordance with this division into objects. Approved by state organs, they are the same for all topographic plans and are required when drawing any topographical surveys (topographic surveys).

Frequently encountered symbols in topographic surveys:

State points geodetic network and concentration points

- Land use and allotment boundaries with boundary signs at turning points

- Buildings. The numbers indicate the number of floors. Explanatory captions are given to indicate the fire resistance of the building (zh - residential non-fire-resistant (wooden), n - non-residential non-fire resistant, kn - stone non-residential, kzh - stone residential (usually brick), smzh and smn - mixed residential and mixed non-residential - wooden buildings with thin cladding brick or with floors built from different materials (the first floor is brick, the second is wooden)). The dotted line shows a building under construction.

- Slopes. Used to display ravines, road embankments and other artificial and natural landforms with sudden elevation changes

- Power transmission lines and communication lines. The symbols follow the cross-sectional shape of the pillar. Round or square. At the reinforced concrete pillars in the center symbol dot. One arrow in the direction of electrical wires - low-voltage, two - high-voltage (6 kV and above)

- Underground and above-ground communications. Underground - dotted line, aboveground - solid line. The letters indicate the type of communication. K - sewerage, G - gas, N - oil pipeline, V - water supply, T - heating main. Additional explanations are also given: Number of wires for cables, gas pipeline pressure, pipe material, their thickness, etc.

- Various area objects with explanatory captions. Wasteland, arable land, construction site, etc.

- Railways

- Car roads. The letters indicate the coating material. A - asphalt, Sh - crushed stone, C - cement or concrete slabs. On dirt roads, the material is not indicated, and one of the sides is shown as a dotted line.

- Wells and wells

- Bridges over rivers and streams

- Horizontals. Serve to display the terrain. They are lines formed by cutting earth's surface parallel planes at equal intervals of height change.

- Height marks of characteristic points of the area. Typically in the Baltic height system.

- Various woody vegetation. The predominant species of tree vegetation, the average height of trees, their thickness and the distance between trees (density) are indicated.

- Separate trees

- Shrubs

- Various meadow vegetation

- Swampy conditions with reed vegetation

- Fences. Fences made of stone and reinforced concrete, wood, picket fences, chain-link mesh, etc.

Commonly used abbreviations in topographic surveys:

Buildings:

N - Non-residential building.

F - Residential.

KN - Stone non-residential

KZH - Stone residential

PAGE - Under construction

FUND. - Foundation

SMN - Mixed non-residential

CSF - Mixed Residential

M. - Metal

development - Destroyed (or collapsed)

gar. - Garage

T. - Toilet

Communication lines:

3 ave. - Three wires on a power pole

1 cab. - One cable per pole

b/pr - without wires

tr. - Transformer

K - Sewerage

Cl. - Storm sewerage

T - Heating main

N - Oil pipeline

cab. - Cable

V - Communication lines. In numbers the number of cables, for example 4V - four cables

n.d. - Low pressure

s.d. - Medium pressure

e.d. - High pressure

Art. - Steel

chug - Cast iron

bet. - Concrete

Area symbols:

page pl. - Construction site

og. - Vegetable garden

empty - Wasteland

Roads:

A - Asphalt

Ш - Crushed stone

C - Cement, concrete slabs

D - Wooden covering. Almost never occurs.

dor. zn. - Road sign

dor. decree. - Road sign

Water bodies:

K - Well

well - Well

art.well - artesian well

vdkch. - Water pump

bass. - Pool

vdhr. - Reservoir

clay - Clay

Symbols may differ on plans of different scales, so to read a topoplan it is necessary to use symbols for the appropriate scale.

How to correctly read symbols on topographic surveys

Let's look at how to correctly understand what we see on a topographical survey using a specific example and how they can help us .

Below is a 1:500 scale topographic survey of a private house with a plot of land and the surrounding area.

In the upper left corner we see an arrow with the help of which it is clear how the topographic survey is oriented towards the north. On a topographical survey, this direction may not be indicated, since by default the plan should be oriented with its top part to the north.

The nature of the relief in the survey area: the area is flat with a slight decline to the south. The difference in elevation marks from north to south is approximately 1 meter. The height of the southernmost point is 155.71 meters, and the northernmost is 156.88 meters. To display the relief, elevation marks were used, covering the entire topographic survey area and two horizontal lines. The upper one is thin with an elevation of 156.5 meters (not indicated on the topographic survey) and the one located to the south is thicker with an elevation of 156 meters. At any point lying on the 156th horizontal line, the mark will be exactly 156 meters above sea level.

The topographic survey shows four identical crosses located at equal distances in the shape of a square. This is a coordinate grid. They serve to graphically determine the coordinates of any point on a topographic survey.

Next, we will sequentially describe what we see from north to south. In the upper part of the topoplan there are two parallel dotted lines with the inscription between them “Valentinovskaya St.” and two letters “A”. This means that we see a street called Valentinovskaya, the roadway of which is covered with asphalt, without a curb (since these are dotted lines. Solid lines are drawn with the curb, indicating the height of the curb, or two marks are given: the top and bottom of the curb).

Let us describe the space between the road and the fence of the site:

1. A horizontal line runs through it. The relief decreases towards the site.
2. In the center of this part of the survey there is a concrete power line pole, from which cables with wires extend in the directions indicated by the arrows. Cable voltage 0.4 kV. There is also a street lamp hanging on the pole.
3. To the left of the pillar we see four broad-leaved trees (this could be oak, maple, linden, ash, etc.)
4. Below the pillar, parallel to the road with a branch towards the house, an underground gas pipeline is laid (yellow dotted line with the letter G). The pressure, material and diameter of the pipe are not indicated on the topographic survey. These characteristics are clarified after agreement with the gas industry.
5. Two short parallel segments found in this topographic survey area are a symbol of grass vegetation (forbs)

Let's move on to the site itself.

The facade of the site is fenced with a metal fence more than 1 meter high with a gate and wicket. The facade of the left (or right, if you look at the site from the street) is exactly the same. The facade of the right plot is fenced with a wooden fence on a stone, concrete or brick foundation.

Vegetation on the site: lawn grass with free-standing pine trees (4 pieces) and fruit trees (also 4 pieces).

There is a concrete pole on the site with a power cable from the pole on the street to the house on the site. An underground gas branch runs from the gas pipeline route to the house. The underground water supply is connected to the house from the neighboring plot. The fencing of the western and southern parts of the site is made of chain-link mesh, while the eastern part is made of a metal fence more than 1 meter high. In the southwestern part of the site, part of the fencing of neighboring sites made of chain-link mesh and a solid wooden fence is visible.

Buildings on the site: In the upper (northern) part of the site there is a residential one-story wooden house. 8 is the house number on Valentinovskaya Street. The floor level in the house is 156.55 meters. In the eastern part of the house there is a terrace with a closed wooden porch attached. In the western part, on the neighboring plot, there is a destroyed extension to the house. There is a well near the northeast corner of the house. In the southern part of the site there are three wooden non-residential buildings. A canopy on poles is attached to one of them.

Vegetation in neighboring areas: in the area located to the east - woody vegetation, to the west - grass.

On the site located to the south, a residential one-story wooden house is visible.

This way help to obtain a fairly large amount of information about the territory in which the topographic survey was carried out.

And finally, this is what this topographic survey looks like applied to an aerial photograph:

People who do not have special education in the field of geodesy or cartography may not understand the crosses depicted on maps and topographic plans. What kind of symbol is this?

This is the so-called coordinate grid, the intersection of integer or exact coordinate values. Coordinates used on maps and topoplans can be geographic or rectangular. Geographic coordinates are latitude and longitude, rectangular coordinates are distances from the conventional origin in meters. For example, state cadastral registration is carried out in rectangular coordinates and for each region its own system of rectangular coordinates is used, which differs in its conditional origin in different regions of Russia (for the Moscow region the MSK-50 coordinate system is adopted). For maps over large areas, geographic coordinates are usually used (latitude and longitude, which you could also see in GPS navigators).

Topographic survey or toposurvey is carried out in a rectangular coordinate system and the crosses that we see on such a topoplan are the intersections of circular coordinate values. If there are two topographic surveys of neighboring areas in the same coordinate system, they can be combined using these crosses and get a topographic survey for two areas at once, from which more complete information about the adjacent territory can be obtained.

Distance between crosses on topographic survey

In accordance with the rules and regulations, they are always located at a distance of 10 cm from each other and form regular squares. By measuring this distance on a paper version of the topographic survey, you can determine whether the scale of the topographic survey is maintained when printing or photocopying the source material. This distance should always be 10 centimeters between adjacent crosses. If it differs significantly, but not by an integer number of times, then such material cannot be used, since it does not correspond to the declared scale of the topographic survey.

If the distance between the crosses differs by several times from 10 cm, then most likely such a topographic survey was printed for some tasks that do not require adherence to the original scale. For example: if the distance between crosses on topographic survey 1:500 scale - 5cm, which means it was printed at a scale of 1:1000, distorting all the symbols, but at the same time reducing the size of the printed material, which can be used as an overview plan.

Knowing the scale of the topographic survey, you can determine what distance in meters on the ground corresponds to the distance between adjacent crosses on the topographic survey. So for the most commonly used topographic survey scale of 1:500, the distance between the crosses corresponds to 50 meters, for a scale of 1:1000 - 100 meters, 1:2000 - 200 meters, etc. This can be calculated knowing that between crosses on topographic survey 10 cm, and the distance on the ground in one centimeter of topographic survey in meters is obtained by dividing the denominator of the scale by 100.

It is possible to calculate the scale of topographic survey using crosses (coordinate grid) if the rectangular coordinates of neighboring crosses are indicated. To calculate it is necessary to multiply the difference in coordinates along one of the axes of neighboring crosses by 10. Using the example of the topographic survey given below, in this case we will get: (2246600 - 2246550)*10= 500 ---> The scale of this survey is 1:500 or in one centimeter 5 meters. You can also calculate the scale, if it is not indicated on the topographic survey, using a known distance on the ground. For example, by the known length of a fence or the length of one of the sides of a house. To do this, divide the known length on the ground in meters by the measured distance of this length on a topographic survey in centimeters and multiply by 100. Example: the length of the wall of a house is 9 meters, this distance measured with a ruler on a topographic survey is 1.8 cm. (9/1.8) * 100 =500. Topographic scale - 1:500. If the distance measured on the topographic survey is 0.9 cm, then the scale is 1:1000 ((9/0.9)*100=1000)

The use of crosses in topographic surveys

Size crosses on topographic survey should be 1cm X 1cm. If the crosses do not correspond to these dimensions, then most likely the distance between them is not maintained and the scale of the topographic survey is distorted. As has already been written, using crosses, if topographic surveys are performed in one coordinate system, it is possible to combine topographic surveys of neighboring territories. Designers use crosses on topographic surveys to link objects under construction. For example, to set out the axes of buildings, the exact distances along the coordinate axes to the nearest cross are indicated, which makes it possible to calculate the future exact location of the designed object on the ground.

Below is a fragment of a topographic survey with the indicated values ​​of rectangular coordinates on the crosses.

Topographic survey scale

Scale is the ratio of linear dimensions. This word came to us from the German language, and is translated as “measuring stick”.

What is a survey scale?

In geodesy and cartography, the term scale is understood as the ratio of the real size of an object to the size of its image on a map or plan. The scale value is written as a fraction with one in the numerator, and a number in the denominator indicating how many times the reduction was made.

Using the scale, you can determine which segment on the map the distance measured on the ground will correspond to. For example, moving one centimeter on a map with a scale of 1:1000 will be equivalent to ten meters covered on the ground. Conversely, every ten meters of terrain is a centimeter of a map or plan. The larger the scale, the more detailed the map, the more fully it displays the terrain objects plotted on it.

Scale- one of key concepts topographic survey. The variety of scales is explained by the fact that each type of it, focused on solving specific problems, makes it possible to obtain plans of a certain size and generalization. For example, large-scale terrestrial surveying can provide a detailed display of the terrain and objects located on the ground. It is done during land management work, as well as during engineering and geodetic surveys. But it will not be able to show objects over as large an area as small-scale aerial photography.

The choice of scale primarily depends on the degree of detail of the map or plan required in each specific case. The larger the scale used, the higher the requirements for the accuracy of the measurements made. And the more experience the performers and specialized enterprises performing this survey should have.

Types of scale

There are 3 types of scale:

Named;

Graphic;

Numerical.

Topographic survey scale 1:1000 used in the design of low-rise construction and engineering surveys. It is also used for drawing up working drawings of various industrial facilities.

Smaller scale 1:2000 Suitable for example for detailing individual areas settlements– cities, towns, rural areas. It is also used for projects of fairly large industrial buildings.

To scale 1:5000 draw up cadastral plans and general plans of cities. It is indispensable in the design of railways and highways, and the laying of communication networks. It is taken as a basis when drawing up small-scale topographic plans. Smaller scales, starting from 1:10000, are used for plans of the largest settlements - cities and towns.

But the greatest demand is for scale topographic surveys 1:500 . The range of its use is quite wide: from master plan construction site, to above-ground and underground utilities. Larger-scale work is required only in landscape design, where ratios of 1:50, 1:100 and 1:200 are necessary for a detailed description of the area - individual trees, shrubs and other similar objects.

For topographic surveys at a scale of 1:500, the average errors of contours and objects should not exceed 0.7 millimeters, no matter how complex the terrain and relief may be. These requirements are determined by the specific area of ​​application, which includes:

utility plans;

drawing up very detailed plans for industrial and utility structures;

improvement of the area adjacent to the buildings;

layout of gardens and parks;

landscaping of small areas.

Such plans depict not only relief and vegetation, but also water bodies, geological wells, landmarks and other similar structures. One of the main features of this large-scale topographic survey is the placement of communications, which must be coordinated with the services that operate them.

Do-it-yourself topographic survey

Is it possible to carry out a topographic survey of your own site with your own hands, without involving a specialist in the field of geodesy? How difficult is it to carry out topographic surveys on your own?

If a topographic survey is necessary to obtain any official documents, for example, a building permit, provision of ownership or lease of a land plot, or obtaining technical conditions for connecting to gas, electricity or other communications, you will not be able to provide DIY topographic survey. In this case, topographic survey is an official document, the basis for further design, and only specialists who have a license to carry out geodetic and cartographic work or are members of a self-regulatory organization (SRO) corresponding to these types of work have the right to perform it.

Execute do-it-yourself topographic survey without special education and work experience it is almost impossible. Topographic survey is a rather technically complex product that requires knowledge in the field of geodesy, cartography and the availability of special expensive equipment. Possible errors in the resulting topoplan can lead to serious problems. For example, an incorrect determination of the location of a future structure due to poor-quality topographic survey can lead to a violation of fire safety and building codes and, as a result, to a possible court decision to demolish the structure. Topographic survey with gross errors can lead to incorrect location of the fence, violating the rights of neighbors of your land and ultimately to its dismantling and significant additional costs for its construction in a new location.

In what cases and how can you do topographic surveys yourself?

The result of a topographic survey is a detailed plan of the area, which shows the relief and detailed situation. Special geodetic equipment is used to plot objects and terrain on the plan.
Devices and tools that can be used to perform topographic surveys:

theodolite

total station

• high-precision geodetic GPS/GLONASS receiver

  3D laser scanner

Theodolite is the cheapest equipment option. The cheapest theodolite costs about 25,000 rubles. The most expensive of these devices is a laser scanner. Its price is measured in millions of rubles. Based on this and the prices for topographic surveys, it does not make sense to purchase your own equipment to perform topographic surveys with your own hands. There remains the option of renting equipment. The cost of renting an electronic total station starts from 1000 rubles. in a day. If you have experience in topographic surveys and working with this equipment, then it makes sense to rent an electronic total station and do the topographic survey yourself. Otherwise, without experience, you will spend quite a lot of time studying complex equipment and work technology, which will lead to significant rental costs that exceed the cost of performing this type of work by an organization that has a special license.

For the design of underground communications on a site, the nature of the relief is important. Incorrect determination of the slope can lead to undesirable consequences when laying sewers. Based on the above, the only possible option is do-it-yourself topographic surveys This is drawing up a simple plan for a site with existing buildings for simple landscaping. In this case, if the plot is registered in the cadastral register, a cadastral passport with form B6 can help. The exact dimensions, coordinates and rotation angles of the site boundaries are indicated there. The most difficult thing when taking measurements without special equipment is determining the angles. Available information about the boundaries of the site can be used as a basis for constructing a simple plan for your site. A tape measure can serve as a tool for further measurements. It is desirable that its length be sufficient for measuring the diagonals of the section, otherwise, when measuring the lengths of lines in several steps, errors will accumulate. Measurements with a tape measure to draw up a site plan can be carried out if there are already established boundaries of your site and they are fixed with boundary signs or coincide with the site fence. In this case, to plot any objects on the plan, several measurements are taken of the lengths of lines from boundary signs or corners of the site. The plan is drawn up electronically or on paper. For the paper version, it is better to use graph paper. The boundaries of the site are drawn on the plan and used as a basis for further construction. The distances measured with a tape measure are laid off from the plotted corners of the site and the location is obtained at the intersection of the radii of the circles corresponding to the measured distances required object. The plan obtained in this way can be used for simple calculations. For example, calculating the area occupied by a vegetable garden, preliminary calculation of the amount of building materials needed for additional decorative fences or laying garden paths.

Taking into account all of the above, we can conclude:

If a topographic survey is required to obtain any official documents (building permit, cadastral registration, urban planning plan, planning organization diagram) or to design a residential building, its implementation must be entrusted to an organization that has the appropriate license or is a member of a self-regulatory organization (SRO). In this case, done do it yourself topographic survey has no legal force and possible errors when carried out by a non-professional can lead to catastrophic consequences. The only possible option do-it-yourself topographic surveys This is drawing up a simple plan for solving simple problems on your personal property.

Signs warning about this should be installed on sections of the road with visible unevenness.

A common road problem is the appearance of ruts caused by heavy trucks.

When you get into a rut, the car becomes difficult to control, especially with wide tires. And if this happens at speed, it can lead to driving into a ditch or into oncoming traffic.

In this article:

Road sign requirements 1.16

Sign " Rough road» warns motorists about the possible risk of collision with other road users, as well as wear or damage to the vehicle’s suspension.

The first thing the sign requires is to maintain a safe speed. The second is to be ready to go around an obstacle or slow down.

A common mistake made by drivers is to brake sharply in front of a vehicle behind them, which results in a collision. However, in a little-known area or at night, the driver cannot know for sure the road surface.

This is why the installation of sign 1.16 is provided, so that at any moment the steering wheel or braking force can react to an unevenness on the road.

To correct the situation with damage to roads by multi-ton trucks, the legislation of the Russian Federation has introduced a fee per kilometer for heavy trucks over 12 tons. This will keep the roads in good condition according to the meaning of our legislator. Well, we'll wait and see.

Rules for installing a sign 1.16

The unevenness of the road can be associated with undulations, potholes, and not smooth connections with the bridge structure. In this case, in accordance with the provisions of GOST, it is necessary to install warnings.

The “Rough Road” sign is installed immediately in front of the uneven area. If this area is located in the city, then the warning will be valid at a distance of 50-100 meters, outside the city at a distance of 150-300 meters, and also at another distance in accordance with the sign on plate 8.1.1.

When carrying out repair work in the area where the said work is being carried out, there may be uneven roads, about which temporary warning signs 1.16 may be placed before entering. The difference between a permanent sign and a temporary sign will be the change of the sign image to a yellow background, which will be temporary.

The effect of the sign will extend to the nearest intersection; if the road remains uneven, sign 1.16 will be duplicated after the intersection.

In any case, the driver must be warned of the danger, since timely warnings ensure traffic safety for motor vehicles.

Liability for violation of sign 1.16

Administrative legal acts do not provide for penalties for violation of the requirements of sign 1.16. But if the driver ignores the warning measures, it will negatively affect traffic safety. A car can be thrown out of a rut, which will inevitably cause a collision with an oncoming car.

According to traffic accident statistics, a head-on collision often leads to serious consequences for drivers and passengers. And if there is a truck in the oncoming lane, this can have fatal consequences for the driver who flies into the oncoming lane under the wheels of the truck.

MUNICIPAL BUDGETARY INSTITUTION OF ADDITIONAL EDUCATION

"CENTER FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH TOURISM

AND EXCURSIONS" BRYANSK

LESSON SUMMARY ON THE TOPIC:

DEVELOPED: teacher d/o

Stasishina N.V.

Bryansk - 2014

Plan - outline

classes on the topic

"Conventional signs of topographic maps."

Purpose of the lesson: Give an idea of ​​the symbols of topographic maps.

Lesson objectives:

To familiarize students with the concept of conventional signs and its varieties;

Involve circle members in systematic sports activities;

Develop skills in teamwork and joint search for solutions;

Continue to promote the development of logical thinking, memory and

students' attention;

Equipment: 1. posters with symbols.

2. cards with test tasks.

Type of classes: Learning new material.

Literature: 1. Aleshin V.M. “Tourist topography” - Profizdat, 1987

2. Aleshin V.M., Serebrenikov A.V., “Tourist topography” - Profizdat, 1985

3. Vlasov A, Ngorny A. - “Tourism” (educational manual), M., Higher

school, 1977

4. Voronov A. - “Tourist’s Guide to Topography” - Krasnodar., Publishing House, 1973

6. Kuprin A., “Topography for everyone” - M., Nedra, 1976.

Lesson plan

Preparatory part. (3)

New topic explained: (45)

Presentation of new information.

3. Consolidation of the studied material. (8)

4. Summing up the lesson. (2)

5. Organizational moment. (2)

Progress of the lesson.

1. Preparatory part:

Students take their places at their desks, prepare writing materials

The teacher announces the topic, goals and objectives of the lesson, explains the requirements and lesson plan, and checks those present.

Note

to be ready for

occupation, uniform

clothes for those involved.

2. Explanation of a new topic:

Statement of new information:

Today in class we will look at a new topic:

"Conventional signs of topographic maps."

The map has many names printed in ordinary words, numbers, lines and many icons of different colors, sizes and shapes. This topographical symbols, which indicate local objects on the map.

What are conventional signs?

Conventional signs are symbols with the help of which the actual terrain is depicted on the map.

Topographers came up with special symbols so that they would be as similar as possible to the local objects themselves, and would correspond in size to them on the map scale. So, for example, a forest on topographic maps is depicted in green (after all, it is actually green); houses and other buildings are depicted as rectangles, since when viewed from above, they really almost always have the shape of rectangles; rivers, streams, lakes are depicted in blue, since water, reflecting the sky, also appears blue to us. But it is not always possible to accurately depict every local object on the map in terms of shape, color and size. Let's take, for example, a highway whose width is 20 m. On a hundred thousandth map (1 mm 100 m) such a road would have to be depicted with a line one-fifth of a millimeter thick, and on a map of scale 1:200000 this line would have to be drawn even further thinner - 0.1 mm. Small but important local objects are depicted on topographic maps with special out-of-scale signs, that is, such signs that do not correspond to the actual sizes of local objects, reduced according to the scale of a particular map. For example, a small spring on the river bank is depicted on the map as a blue circle with a diameter of a whole millimeter; In addition, highways and other major roads are colored on maps so that they, as they say, are striking to everyone who picks up a topographic map. For example, an asphalt highway is depicted on a map with a bright red line.

The symbols used in drawing up sports maps for orienteering competitions are somewhat different from topographical ones. Their main purpose is to give the athlete the information about the terrain that he needs when choosing a path of movement. These are signs showing the passability of forests, swamps, paths, etc. So, for ease of reading while running, on a sports map, unlike a topographic map, it is not the forest that is painted over, but the open space - fields, meadows, clearings in the forest. All topographical symbols can be divided into four types:

1) linear- these are roads, communication lines, power lines, streams, rivers, etc. That is, these are signs of such local objects that themselves have the form of long lines;

Write the topic on the board.

Students write down a new topic in their notebook.

2) curly- these are signs of towers, bridges, churches, ferries, power plants, individual buildings, etc.;

3) area - these are signs of forests, swamps, settlements, arable lands, meadows - that is, local objects that occupy significant areas of the earth's surface. Area signs consist of two

elements: contour and sign filling the contour;

4) explanatory- these are signs characterizing the forest, names of settlements, railway stations, rivers, lakes, mountains, etc.,

this is the width of the highway, the length, width and load-carrying capacity of bridges, the depth of fords on rivers, and the like.

Almost all linear and figured signs are non-scale, and area signs, as a rule, exactly correspond to the true sizes of local objects. It is easier to study and remember signs by getting to know them in groups, which are formed according to the type of local objects:

group No. 1 - roads and road structures;

group No. 2 - settlements, buildings;

group No. 3 - hydraulic network (that is, water on the ground);

group No. 4 - vegetation;

group No. 5 - relief;

Group No. 6 - explanatory and special tourist signs.

Group No. 1. Roads and road structures

This group includes eleven most important topographical signs.

All roads can be divided into three main types: railways for train traffic, highways and unpaved roads.

Highway are called roads that have hard artificialcovering - stone (cobblestones, paving stones), asphalt or concrete. The highway sign is out-of-scale. Every SCO signseine road an additional sign is given on the map- alphabetic digital characteristic consisting of three elements: numbers, one more number in brackets and a letter. The first number indicates the width of the highway surface in meters (that is, paved, pavednirovanny or stone-covered part of the highway), and in bracketsa figure is given indicating the width of the entire highway surface in meters, that is, together with the roadsides. The letter denotes the material with which the highway is covered: if it is asphalt, then the letter “A” is put, if it is concrete, then the letter “B”, and if the highway is covered with buskier or paving stones (i.e. stone), then the letter “K”.

The next type of highways is ground, earthen roads without artificial surface. All dirt roads are divided into three types: simple dirt roads (they are also called field or forest roads), country roads, and so on.

called improved dirt roads (abbreviated as UGD). An improved dirt road is also an earthen road, but has a slightly convex shape for better water flow, ditches along the sides and a gravel or crushed stone fill compacted with a roller.

Nobody specially lays paths; they arise spontaneously.fight from the constant walking of people. In densely populated areasRarely can an entire network go in the same direction at oncepaths that then close, then again diverge. So manyIt is impossible to depict the number of paths on the map, so the groupthe trail is shown by one conditional trail in the corresponding directionlenition. Only long enough and permanently existing (sometimes called “centuries old”) trails are markedon large scale maps. The trail sign is almost like thisthe same as a simple dirt road - a thin black intermittentdashed line, but every strokehas a shorter length.

Railways previously iso flogged with two thin blackparallel lines, clearance between which was filled inalternating black and white shanecks. Now signis a continuousthick black line. Two koRotkikh stroke across the signa railway means that it ishas two tracks. If there is only one track, then one line is added. If the cross stroke has anothera small stroke parallel to the railway sign, then I know that Read that the road is electrified.

At the railway station sign, a black rectangle inside a white rectangle is placed on the side of the railway where the station building (station building) is located.

Bridges. On simple dirt roads, as a rule, wooden bridges are built; on highways, improved dirt roads and on important country roads, bridges are most often made of concrete (stone). On railways large bridges over large rivers are always metal, and over small rivers - concrete. Topographic signs of bridges are shaped and non-scale signs.
Where a bridge sign is placed on the map, the road and river signs are broken (Fig. 37). An explanatory sign for bridges is the alphanumeric characteristics of the bridge. For example: DZ =
(24 - 5)/10. Here the letter “D” denotes the material from which the bridge is built - wood (if the bridge is concrete, the letter is written

"TO"). Coefficient 3 is the height of the bridge above the surface of the water in the river. In the numerator of the fraction, the first digit, 24, is the length of the bridge in meters, the second digit, 5, is its width in meters. In the denominator, the number 10 shows the load capacity of the bridge in tons, that is, what is the maximum weight of the machine the bridge is designed for design.

Bridges are often also made on hiking trails, but very small ones - only for pedestrians. Such bridges (residents often call them either treasures or lavas) are sometimes simply two logs laid over a river from bank to bank. The topographic sign for a pedestrian bridge is very simple.

Very often the roads intersect with small dry

ravines, hollows through which streams flow only in the spring, when the snow melts. When building a road, an embankment is made across the ravine, under which a concrete pipe is laid for

Students write down in their notebooks.

Symbols are sketched in a notebook

highway

Simple dirt road

Country road

Improved dirt road

Railway

Bridge

Pedestrian bridge

water flow. Such pipes have their own topographic sign.

Group No. 2. Settlements, individual buildings

This group contains fifteen most important topographical signs. The settlements themselves - villages, auls, hamlets, towns, cities - are complex formations, consisting of various buildings and structures. Therefore, there is no simple topographical sign of a populated area - it consists of topographical signs of various local objects that make up what is called a populated area.

Separate residential and non-residential buildings are depicted by an out-of-scale black rectangle. If the structure is very large in area, and the map is large-scale, then the structure is depicted as a black figure, similar in shape and size (on the map scale) to the structure itself. That is, this is already a large-scale sign. Often, at some distance from a village or town, there is a residential building with its own vegetable garden, orchard, and outbuildings.

For such a separate yard, or farm, there is a special topographic sign.

In populated areas, there are neighborhoods with a predominance of wooden (non-fire-resistant) and stone (fire-resistant) buildings. Topographic sign quarter of the village limited to thin black lines. Inside it, a background is either yellow (if wooden buildings predominate in the block) or orange (if fire-resistant stone buildings predominate in the block). On the background there are black rectangles - out-of-scale signs of individual houses, buildings or large-scale signs of individual large buildings. Next to the signs of some buildings their characteristics are given. For example: "SHK." - school, “SICK.” - hospital, “EL-ST.” - power plant, "SAN" - sanatorium.

The topographic fence sign is the thinnest black line on the map. This sign is often found on maps in the form of a broken closed line, which indicates some kind of fenced area.

If an industrial enterprise is depicted on a small-scale map, then it is necessary to use an out-of-scale sign of a plant (factory) with a pipe (meaning a tall pipe that can serve as a landmark visible at a fairly large distance) or without a pipe. Next to the sign is an abbreviated explanatory sign characterizing the type of product manufactured by the enterprise. For example: “brick” - brick factory, “flour.” - flour mill, “boom.” - paper mill, "sah." - sugar factory, etc.

If an industrial enterprise occupies a large area, then the usual large-scale signs are used, showing all or almost all buildings and structures on its territory: a fence, a factory building, workshops, warehouses, etc., while a half-blackened one is also placed here.

diagonally, an out-of-scale plant sign.

pipe under the road

Separate buildings

Khutor

Urban development

Plants and factories

Inside a populated area there may bechurch, monument or a monument cemetery . A cemetery can be small or large, with or without trees. PoeTherefore, to depict a cemetery, both large-scale andand an off-scale sign. On hikes and travels you can findeven in a deep forest there is a separate yard where he lives

forester and his family. Forester's house has its own topographic sign - an ordinary non-scale sign of a separate building with the inscription “forest.”

Important landmarks can be the various buildings basheared type- water towers, fire towers, silos. They are indicated by one out-of-scale sign, next to which an explanation is often given of what kind of tower it is.

Good landmarks are also high wooden towers, most often standing on the tops of hills, with an observation platform at the very top, where a ladder leads. These are the so-called triangulation points(they are called trigopunks for short). Next to the trigopoint sign on the map there is always some number that indicates the height of the base of the tower above the level of the Baltic Sea in meters and centimeters.

A sign resembling bricks stacked on top of each other - peat mining, that is, the place where peat is mined.

And the last of this group are very important local objects, the topographical signs of which you need to know, these are communication lines and power lines (power lines).

Communication lines are indicated on all maps, regardless of the nature of the connection, by a thin black line with black dots on it. The communication line sign is drawn on the map as the communication line itself goes on the ground.

Power lines(power lines) are on wooden poles or on metal and concrete supports. The power line sign consists of a thin black line on which dots or dashes with arrows are located at intervals of one centimeter.

If the power line is laid on wooden poles, then dots are placed, if on metal or concrete supports - short, thick lines.

Group No. 3. Hydrography

There are 8 basic signs in this group that you need to know.

While traveling on foot, tourists constantly “communicate” with the surface waters of the earth - they set up camp on the banks of rivers and lakes, lay routes along rivers, ford them, overcome swamps, ditches, and use springs to cook food over fires.

One of the main topographical signs of this group is river sign- can be both large-scale and non-scale (across the width of the river). The sign of a wide, large river consists of two elements - the outline of the coastlines of the river (as well as the coastline of the islands, if any), which is drawn with a thin blue line, and the fill sign - a blue background depicting the surface of the river, that is, the space occupied by water.

Church

monument

forester's house

tower

trig point

peat mining

Communication line

Power lines

big river

Out-of-scale sign small river or stream is a simple thin blue line, which, however, gradually thickens from source to mouth.

There are streams that “live” only in spring and early summer, and then the water in them disappears. This peresflowing streams and rivers. The sign of such streams and rivers is a thin blue, but not solid, but a broken line

Information about where the river flows and what the speed of the flow is will also be provided by a topographic map with an explanatory sign of hydrography - a black arrow showing the direction of the river flow, and numbers placed in the middle of the arrow and showing the flow speed in meters per second.

Sea, lake, pond are depicted in the same way: the contours of the banks are shown with a thin blue line, and the water mirror is shown with a blue background.

In densely populated areas, wells located in populated areas are shown only on very large-scale maps (terrain plans). Sign well- a blue circle with a blue dot in the center.

Water sources(springs, springs) are also shown on topographic maps only when they do not dry up and have a significant amount of water. The sign of the source (spring) is a blue circle. If a constant stream flows from a spring, it is shown with the appropriate sign. If the water soon goes back into the ground, the stream sign is not shown.

Swamps There are two types: passable and difficult to pass (or even completely impassable), through which it is dangerous to move and it is better to avoid it. Accordingly, there are two signs of swamps: short blue horizontal strokes, grouped in the shape of irregular rhombuses - this is a passable swamp, but solid horizontal blue strokes - an impassable swamp. The boundaries of the swamps are outlined by a black dotted line.

And the last sign of this group is ditches, the signs of which are thin blue lines. This sign is similar to the sign of an ordinary stream, but its shape is sharply different from it: the line of the stream is always smoothly winding, while the lines of ditches are broken with long, smooth sections without bends.

Group No. 4. Vegetation

This group includes 15 topographical signs, most of which are area and, therefore, large-scale signs.

The first sign is land boundaries, that is, areas occupied by one or another natural or artificial vegetation. Every forest has an edge, and every field, meadow, and swamp has an edge. These are their boundaries, which are shown on topographic maps with a small dotted black line. But the boundaries of the land are not always shown with a dotted line: if there is a road right along the edge of the forest or along the edge of the arable land, meadow, then the sign of this road replaces the boundary sign, that is, the road itself already delimits the forest from the field, the field from the meadow, the meadow from the swamp, etc. d. If a garden or cemetery is surrounded by a fence, then the fence is the boundary.

When carried out land boundaries with a dotted line (or some other sign) - that is, their contours are given, on both sides of the border a filling sign is given - a background and other icons that show what exactly the contour is occupied with, what kind of vegetation is in it.

Sign forests- green background. If the forest is old (as they say - ripe), then the background is made dark green, and if the forest is young (forest growth) - lightlo green. The same is depictedparks in populated areas.
It is important to know not only that this is a forest, but also what it is like - what kind of things are in itthe types of trees that grow, how densely they grow.
There are special explanatory signs for this
- characteristics tree stand. These signs representare images of small trees,signatures and numbers next to them. If in this forest(or parts of the forest) are dominated by coniferous trees,small Christmas trees are drawn on a green background, and if deciduous trees predominate - small birch trees, whose right sidethe crowns are made blackened. If the forest is mixed, both a Christmas tree andbirch tree Abbreviated signature on the leftsigns indicate what types of needlesTrees and deciduous trees predominate here.

The fraction to the right of these icons means the following: the numerator of the fraction is the average height of the trees in this forest in meters, the denominator is the average thickness of the trunks at the level of a person’s head in meters, and the coefficient behind the fraction is the average distance between the trees (that is, the density forests).

Found in forests clearings- long forest corridors. Such clearings are cut (cut) specifically so that the forest is better ventilated and illuminated by the sun. Most often, the clearings are made mutually perpendicular: some run from north to south, others cross them from west to east. Clearings come in different widths: from 2-3 to 10-12 m, and sometimes they are very wide - up to 50 meters or more. Such large clearings are made to lay gas pipelines, oil pipelines, highways and railways, and high-voltage power lines through forests.

Clearings divide the forest into blocks, and each forest block has its own number. At the intersections of the clearings there are quarter poles, on the edges of which these numbers are written in paint. Not every clearing has a road; there are very overgrown clearings, which are even more difficult to navigate than straight through the forest. But the topographic sign of the clearing exactly corresponds to the sign of a simple dirt road - a thin black dashed line. A number indicating its width in meters is also placed here.

For young growth forests, in addition to the light green background, an additional fill sign is used: small black circles go in rows along the background, but their rows are located at 45° to the map frames .

Orchards are also depicted with a green background with rows of small black circles, but here their rows go at 90° to the frames of the card.

Forest deforestation shown on a white background. The mark that fills the contour of the cutting is black vertical strokes arranged in a checkerboard pattern with a short black horizontal stroke at the lower end.

Sign woodlands also, as a rule, located on a white background in the form of black circles with a tail at the bottom, which is always directed to the east.

Large-scale topographic maps show separate groupsbushes in the form of a black circle with three thickened black dots along the outer edge. This is a non-scale sign. If the bushes occupy significant areas of the area, they are already shown as a contour (dotted line), which is filled inside with a light green background, and circles with three dots are scattered across the background in a random order.

Narrow strips of forest are depicted on maps without a green background as a chain of black circles. This is an out-of-scale forest belt sign. If the forest strip is wide enough for a given map scale, then it is depicted with a regular forest sign. There are also narrow strips of bushes (hedges). They are represented by an off-scale sign - a chain of small black circles alternating with thickened dots.

Along the roads there are often specially planted trees, forming a kind of green corridor along the road (alley). These are linings that are shown on maps as small black circles on the sides of the road.

Freestanding trees(not in the forest, but in the field), if they are large and have the significance of landmarks (that is, clearly visible from all sides at a sufficiently large distance), they are also indicated on topographic maps by their off-scale sign .

Meadows have their own sign: small black quotation marks are placed in a checkerboard pattern inside the contour delimiting the meadow. Meadows can occupy very large spaces and can stretch in narrow ribbons in the floodplains of rivers. Small clearings in the forest are also meadows. The sign of a passable swamp is almost always combined with the sign of a meadow, because such a swamp is always covered with grass.

Along the edges of the villages there are vegetable gardens The vegetable garden sign has in the recent past undergone major change: the old sign was oblique shading with solid and dashed lines in black, going in one direction or the other. New vegetable garden sign - gray background.

The last sign of this group, sign arable land,

This is a white background with a black dotted outline.

Group No. 5. Relief

The surface of our planet is very rarely flat. On any plain there are always at least small elevations and depressions: hills , mounds, depressions, ravines, pits, cliffs along river banks. All this taken together represents the topography of the area. Relief is a set of irregularities on the earth's surface. All irregularities can be easily divided into two types - convexity and concavity. Convexities are considered to be positive landforms, and concavities are considered negative landforms. Positive forms of relief include: mountain, hill (hillock), ridge, hill, mound, dune, sandy moving hill); to negative - basin, lowland, valley, gorge, ravine, beam, ravine, pit. Forms: reliefs always alternate in space: every positive form smoothly or abruptly turns into a negative one, and a negative one sharply or smoothly turns into a neighboring positive one.

It is customary to share flat terrain according to the nature of the relief by three type:lightly crossed, moderately crossed and strongly crossed terrain. The degree of ruggedness depends both on the frequency of alternation of convexities and concavities (ascents and descents), and on their height and steepness: where the “ruggedness” of the relief is stronger, that is, where ravines, hills, basins, gullies are more common, and where they are especially high (deep) and their slopes are steeper, the terrain is considered very rugged.

Each relief form has three parts (elements): the top or gold (for positive forms), the bottom (for negative forms), the bottom (for positive ones), the edge or edge (for negative ones) and the slopes or walls for both.

Slopes- a common element of both negative and positive relief forms. They are steep, steep (sharp) and gentle (smooth). Depending on the predominant slopes of the hills and lowlands in a given area, we say: there is a soft and smooth relief here, or there is a sharp, hard relief here.

There are two main ways to convey relief forms on maps: smooth, soft forms are depicted by so-called horizontal lines - thin brown lines, and sharp, hard forms - by a special line with jagged edges. These teeth, like any triangles, have a base and vertices. Where the tops of the teeth are directed, the slope descends there - it goes down almost a vertical cliff. To make it easy to distinguish a steep slope of natural origin from artificial cliffs on the map, jagged lines of cliffs are made in two colors - brown (natural cliffs along river valleys, ravines, etc.) and black (artificial embankments, dams, quarry slopes, etc. .). Next to the cliff signs there is a number indicating the length of the cliff in meters.

Pits and mounds can be naturalmi and artificial. They can bevery deep (high), but small in area, and then they have todepict out-of-scale on mapssigns. If they are significantny dimensions in area, then showing them indicated by scale marks (Fig. 74). The number next to the sign of the mound and pit also indicates their depth and height.

Embankments and excavations along the road are also depicted on maps as a jagged line, but in black color, since they are artificial structures. Where the teeth are directed with their sharp ends away from the railway or highway bed, the road goes along the embankment, and where they are directed on the contrary, towards the road bed, along the excavation. The numbers indicate the highest heights of these slopes.

At the sign career, As a rule, an abbreviated caption is given on the maps, specifying what exactly is being mined in this quarry.

More complex rigid forms of relief are ravines, which are formed in loose sedimentary rocks under the influence of soil erosion by streams of rainwater and during snowmelt. Ravines are a “living” phenomenon; they are born, grow and gradually die. While the ravine is “young” (it is called ravine), its slopes are very steep, but gradually they crumble - they flatten out, become overgrown with turf, bushes, the ravine stops growing and turns into beam (logs)well, a hollow). A ravine has a top, bottom and mouth. From one ravine to the sides can have side ravines with their tops - their called screwdrivers ravine But screwdrivers, in turn, canmultiply, forming intricate branching.

Small River

Drying river

Sea, lake

well

spring, key

clearings

Orchard

felling open forest

bushes

Casing

Meadows

Hard landforms

Pits and mounds

Embankments and excavations

Career

Two typical representatives of soft landforms - antipodes Hill(tubercle) and basin(depression). You cannot show them with a jagged line on the map, since their slopes are gentle and smooth.

If you horizontally “cut”, dissect the figure of a hill into even “slices”, then the entire slope of the hill will be surrounded by several closed lines of “cuts” - horizontals. And if you then draw these lines on paper, you will get a figure that gives an idea of ​​​​the relief (Fig. 78). You just need to use short strokes on the horizontal lines to show in which direction the slopes go down, since exactly the same figure will be obtained if you cut through the basin with horizontal planes. Such strokes, showing the direction down from the horizontal, are called berg strokes or slope indicators (in German, “berg” means mountain).

This method of depicting soft landforms on maps andIt's called the method of contour lines. Beyond the beginning of the secants of the relief horizonThe plane of the Baltic Sea level is adopted for the tal planes.The next cutting plane is drawn, for example, 10 m higherlevel of the Baltic Sea, after another 10 m in height there is a second cutting plane, then, 10 m above it, a third (already at a height30 m above sea level), etc. This distance (h) between planes cutting the relief is called the height of the relief section and can be different: 2.5 m, 5 m, 10 m, 20 m, etc.

Each cutting plane will give on the map its own closed relief section line - a horizontal, and all together they will give a complete drawing of contours - a general picture of the terrain. But since there will be a lot of contour lines on the map, in order not to get confused in them, to make it easier to distinguish and trace them, we decided to highlight some of the contour lines a little - to make every fifth one thicker. Then the contour lines on the map, as they say, are better readable. Thus, with a section height of, for example, 5 m, the thickened horizontal will be the horizontal located 25 m above the level of the Baltic Sea; the next thickened one is 50 m above sea level, etc.

In addition, on some horizontal lines, in convenient places, numbers are written in brown, which indicate the height of this horizontal line in meters above sea level, or, as is customary in topography to call this value, the horizontal mark. The very number of the mark of one or another horizontal line, in addition to the berg strokes, helps to understand in which direction the slope goes down: where this number has a bottom, that’s where the slope goes down, and where there’s a top, that’s where the slope goes up. In addition, marks are placed on the tops of mountains and hills. The side of the hill, which is steeper, will be depicted on the map as contours located close to each other, and the other, flat side of the hill, on the contrary, will be depicted as sparse contours.

Between the tops of two neighboring hills that have a common base, there is always a depression. This depression is called a saddle. And under the saddle on
On the slopes of hills, gullies and ravines most often appear - hard forms of relief are always difficult to combine with
soft.

Group No. 6. Special signs

They try to place the labels of names on maps so that they do not cover important objects, and at the same time, they still have to make, for example, a gap in the signs of the road network where the signature of a settlement or the name of some other place is superimposed on the road sign local subject.

Signatures of the names of settlements are always made horizontally (direction west - east) in different fonts - in some places the letters of the inscription are thicker and taller, in others they are thinner and have a slight slope. Through such a difference in font, certain information is communicated to the map reader: approximate
number of inhabitants in a locality. Where there are more residents, there is a larger signature. Under each name of a settlement there are numbers that indicate the number of buildings (yards) in this village or town. Next to these numbers there are letters in some places

“SS”, indicating that in this locality there is a village council, that is, a local government authority.

On their own homemade maps and diagrams, tourists often enter special symbols showing the route traveled by the tourist group and its direction, travel routes, places of overnight and day stays, places of daytime stops for lunch, and places of interest along the route.

3. Consolidation of the studied material.

1. What are symbols?

2. How many groups can topographic symbols be divided into?

3. List these groups?

4. List what is considered linear?

5. List what applies to areal types?

6. How many groups are topographic signs divided into?

4. Summing up the lesson.

The teacher draws conclusions, evaluates the activities of the students, and gives instructions for the next lesson.

5. Organizational moment.

The teacher tells further plans for the coming week.

Topic 8. CARTOGRAPHICAL SYMBOLS

8.1. CLASSIFICATION OF CONVENTIONAL SIGNS

On maps and plans, the image of terrain objects (situations) is presented in cartographic symbols. Cartographic symbols - a system of symbolic graphic notations used to depict various objects and phenomena, their qualitative and quantitative characteristics on maps. Symbols are sometimes also called "map legend".
For ease of reading and memorization, many symbols have outlines that resemble the top or side view of the local objects they depict. For example, symbols of factories, oil rigs, free-standing trees, bridges are similar in shape to appearance listed local items.
Cartographic symbols are usually divided into scale (contour), non-scale and explanatory (Fig. 8.1). In some textbooks, linear symbols are classified as a separate group.

Rice. 8.1. Types of symbols

Large-scale (contour) signs are conventional signs used to fill the areas of objects expressed on the scale of a plan or map. From a plan or map, using such a sign, you can determine not only the location of the object, but its size and outline.
The boundaries of area objects on the plan can be depicted with solid lines of different colors: black (buildings and structures, fences, roads, etc.), blue (reservoirs, rivers, lakes), brown (natural landforms), light pink (streets and areas in populated areas), etc. The dotted line is used for the boundaries of agricultural and natural land in the area, the boundaries of embankments and excavations near roads. The boundaries of clearings, tunnels and some structures are indicated by a simple dotted line. The fill characters inside the outline are arranged in a specific order.
Linear symbols(a type of large-scale symbols) are used when depicting linear objects - roads, power lines, borders, etc. The location and planned outline of the axis of a linear object are depicted accurately on the map, but their width is significantly exaggerated. For example, a highway symbol on maps at a scale of 1:100,000 exaggerates its width by 8 to 10 times.
If an object on a plan (map) cannot be expressed by a scale symbol due to its smallness, then off-scale symbol, for example, a boundary sign, a separately growing tree, a kilometer pole, etc. The exact position of an object on the ground is shown main point off-scale symbol. The main point is:

• for signs of symmetrical shape - in the center of the figure (Fig. 8.2);
• for signs with a wide base - in the middle of the base (Fig. 8.3);
• for signs that have a base in the form of a right angle, at the apex of the angle (Fig. 8.4);
• for signs that are a combination of several figures, in the center of the lower figure (Fig. 8.5).

Rice. 8.2. Symmetrical signs
1 - points of the geodetic network; 2 - points of the survey network, fixed on the ground by centers; 3 - astronomical points; 4 - churches; 5 - plants, factories and mills without pipes; 6 - power plants; 7 - water mills and sawmills; 8 - fuel warehouses and gas tanks; 9 - active mines and adits; 10 - oil and gas wells without derricks

Rice. 8.3. Wide base signs
1 - factory and factory pipes; 2 - waste heaps; 3 - telegraph and radiotelegraph offices and departments, telephone exchanges; 4 - meteorological stations; 5 - semaphores and traffic lights; 6 - monuments, monuments, mass graves, tours and stone pillars more than 1 m high; 7 - Buddhist monasteries; 8 - separately lying stones

Rice. 8.4. Signs with a base in the form of a right angle
1 - wind engines; 2 - gas stations and gas stations; 3 - windmills; 4 - permanent river signaling signs;
5 - free-standing deciduous trees; 6 - free-standing coniferous trees

Rice. 8.5. Signs that are a combination of several figures
1 - plants, factories and mills with pipes; 2 - transformer booths; 3 - radio stations and television centers; 4 - oil and gas rigs; 5 - tower-type structures; 6 - chapels; 7 - mosques; 8 - radio masts and television masts; 9 - kilns for burning lime and charcoal; 10 - mazars, suborgans (religious buildings)

Objects expressed by off-scale symbols serve as good landmarks on the ground.
Explanatory symbols (Fig. 8.6, 8.7) are used in combination with large-scale and non-scale; they serve to further characterize local items and their varieties. For example, an image of a coniferous or deciduous tree in combination with a conventional forest sign shows the dominant tree species in it, an arrow on a river indicates the direction of its flow, and transverse strokes on a railway symbol indicate the number of tracks.

Rice. 8.6. Explanatory symbols of a bridge, highway, river

Rice. 8.7. Characteristics of forest stands
In the numerator of the fraction - the average height of trees in meters, in the denominator - the average thickness of trunks, to the right of the fraction - the average distance between trees

The maps contain signatures of the proper names of settlements, rivers, lakes, mountains, forests and other objects, as well as explanatory signatures in the form of alphabetic and numerical designations. They allow us to obtain additional information about the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of local objects and relief. Lettered explanatory signatures are most often given in abbreviated form according to the established list of conventional abbreviations.
For a more visual representation of the terrain on maps, each group of symbols related to the same type of terrain elements ( vegetation cover, hydrography, relief, etc.), printed with ink of a certain color.

8.2. CONVENTIONAL SIGNS OF LOCAL OBJECTS

Settlements on topographic maps of scales 1:25,000 - 1:100,000 show everything (Fig. 8.8). Next to the image of the settlement, its name is signed: cities - in capital letters of a straight font, and a rural settlement - in lowercase letters of a smaller font. Under the name of a rural settlement, the number of houses is indicated (if known), and if they have district and village councils, their abbreviated signature (PC, CC).
The names of city and holiday villages are printed on maps in capital letters of italic font. When depicting settlements on maps, their external outlines and the nature of the layout are preserved, main and through passages, industrial enterprises, outstanding buildings and other buildings that have landmark significance are identified.
Wide streets and squares, depicted on the map scale, are shown with large-scale symbols in accordance with their actual size and configuration, other streets - with conventional out-of-scale symbols, main (main) streets are highlighted on the map with a wider clearance.

Rice. 8.8. Settlements

Populated areas are depicted in most detail on maps at scales of 1:25,000 and 1:50,000. Blocks with predominant fire-resistant and non-fire-resistant buildings are painted over with the appropriate color. As a rule, all buildings located on the outskirts of populated areas are shown.
The map at a scale of 1: 100,000 basically preserves the image of all main streets, industrial facilities and the most important objects that are landmarks. Individual buildings within blocks are shown only in settlements with very sparse buildings, for example, in dacha-type settlements.
When depicting all other settlements, buildings are combined into blocks and filled with black paint; the fire resistance of buildings on the 1:100,000 map is not highlighted.
Selected local items significant landmarks are plotted on the map most accurately. Such local objects include various towers and towers, mines and adits, wind turbines, churches and separate buildings, radio masts, monuments, individual trees, mounds, rock outcrops, etc. All of them, as a rule, are depicted on maps conventional out-of-scale signs, and some are accompanied by abbreviated explanatory captions. For example, signature check yy. with the sign of a mine means that the mine is coal.

Rice. 8.9. Selected local items

Road network on topographic maps it is depicted in full and detail. Railways are shown on maps and divided according to the number of tracks (single-, double- and triple-track), gauge (normal and narrow-gauge) and condition (operating, under construction and dismantled). Electrified railways are distinguished by special symbols. The number of tracks is indicated by dashes perpendicular to the axis of the conventional road sign: three dashes - three-track, two - double-track, one - single-track.
On railways they show stations, sidings, platforms, depots, track posts and booths, embankments, excavations, bridges, tunnels, semaphores and other structures. The proper names of the station (passings, platforms) are signed next to their symbols. If the station is located in or near a populated area and has the same name as it, then its signature is not given, but the name of this populated area is emphasized. The black rectangle inside the station symbol indicates the location of the station relative to the tracks: if the rectangle is located in the middle, then the tracks run on both sides of the station.

Rice. 8.10. Railway stations and facilities

Symbols for platforms, checkpoints, booths and tunnels are accompanied by corresponding abbreviated captions ( pl., bl. p., B, tun.). Next to the symbol of the tunnel, in addition, its numerical characteristic is placed in the form of a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the height and width, and the denominator - the length of the tunnel in meters.
Road And ground roads When depicted on maps, they are divided into paved and unpaved roads. Paved roads include freeways, improved highways, highways, and improved unpaved roads. Topographic maps show all paved roads in the area. The width and surface material of motorways and highways are indicated directly on their symbols. For example, on the highway the signature 8(12)A means: 8 - width of the covered part of the road in meters; 12 - width of the road from ditch to ditch; A- coating material (asphalt). On improved dirt roads, usually only a label is given for the width of the road from ditch to ditch. Freeways, improved highways, and highways are highlighted in orange on maps, improved dirt roads - yellow or orange.

Figure 8.11. Highways and dirt roads

Topographic maps show unpaved dirt (country) roads, field and forest roads, caravan routes, trails and winter roads. If there is a dense network of roads of a higher class, some secondary roads (field, forest, dirt) on maps of scales 1:200,000, 1:100,000, and sometimes 1:50,000 may not be shown.
Sections of dirt roads passing through wetlands, lined with bundles of brushwood (fascines) on wooden beds and then covered with a layer of earth or sand, are called fascines sections of roads. If on such sections of roads, instead of fascines, a flooring of logs (poles) or simply an embankment of earth (stones) is made, then they are called ruts and rowings, respectively. Fascinal sections of roads, roads and boats are indicated on maps by dashes perpendicular to the conventional sign of the road.
On highways and dirt roads they show bridges, pipes, embankments, excavations, tree plantings, kilometer posts and passes (in mountainous areas).
Bridges depicted on maps with symbols of different designs depending on the material (metal, reinforced concrete, stone and wood); In this case, two-tier bridges, as well as drawbridges and drawbridges, are distinguished. Bridges on floating supports are distinguished by a special symbol. Next to the symbols of bridges with a length of 3 m or more, and located on roads (except for highways and improved highways), their numerical characteristics are signed in the form of a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the length and width of the bridge in meters, and the denominator - the load capacity in tons Before the fraction, indicate the material from which the bridge is built, as well as the height of the bridge above the water level in meters (on navigable rivers). For example, the signature next to the bridge symbol (Fig. 8.12) means that the bridge is made of stone (material of construction), the numerator is the length and width of the roadway in meters, the denominator is the load capacity in tons.

Rice. 8.12. Overpass over the railway

When designating bridges on highways and improved highways, only their length and width are given. Characteristics of bridges less than 3 m long are not given.

8.3. HYDROGRAPHY (WATER BODIES)

Topographic maps show the coastal part of the seas, lakes, rivers, canals (ditches), streams, wells, springs, ponds and other bodies of water. Their names are written next to them. The larger the map scale, the more detailed water bodies are depicted.
Lakes, ponds and other bodies of water shown on maps if their area is 1 mm2 or more on the map scale. Smaller bodies of water are shown only in arid and desert areas, as well as in cases where they serve as reliable landmarks.

Rice. 8.13. Hydrography

Rivers, streams, canals and main ditches Topographic maps show everything. It has been established that on maps of scales 1:25,000 and 1:50,000, rivers up to 5 m wide, and on maps of scale 1:100,000 - up to 10 m are indicated by one line, wider rivers - by two lines. Channels and ditches with a width of 3 m or more are depicted by two lines, and those less than 3 m wide - by one.
Width and depth of rivers (channels) in meters is written as a fraction: the numerator is the width, the denominator is the depth and nature of the bottom soil. Such signatures are placed in several places along the river (canal).
River flow speed (m/s), represented by two lines, point in the middle of the arrow showing the direction of the flow. On rivers and lakes, the height of the water level during low-water periods in relation to sea level (water edge marks) is also indicated.
Shown on rivers and canals dams, gateways, ferries (transportation), fords and give the corresponding characteristics.
Wells denoted by blue circles next to which a letter is placed TO or signature art. To. (artesian well).
Ground water pipelines are shown by solid blue lines with dots (every 8 mm), and underground ones by broken lines.
To make it easier to find and select water supply sources on the map in steppe and desert areas, the main wells are marked with a larger symbol. In addition, if there is data, an explanatory signature of the ground level mark is given to the left of the symbol of the well, and to the right - the depth of the well in meters and the filling rate in liters per hour.

8.4. SOIL AND VEGETATION COVER

Soil -vegetable cover are usually depicted on maps with large-scale symbols. These include conventional signs for forests, shrubs, gardens, parks, meadows, swamps and salt marshes, as well as conventional signs depicting the nature of the soil cover: sand, rocky surface, pebbles, etc. When designating soil and vegetation cover, a combination of conventional symbols is often used signs. For example, in order to show a swampy meadow with bushes, the area occupied by the meadow is marked with a contour, inside which the symbols of swamp, meadow and bushes are placed.
The contours of areas covered with forests and shrubs, as well as the contours of swamps and meadows, are indicated on maps by dotted lines. If the boundary of a forest, garden or other land is a linear local object (ditch, fence, road), then in this case the symbol of a linear local object replaces the dotted line.
Forest, bushes. The area of ​​the forest inside the contour is painted over with green paint. The tree species is shown with the icon deciduous, coniferous, or a combination of both when the forest is mixed. If there is data on the height, thickness of trees and density of the forest, its characteristics are indicated with explanatory captions and numbers. For example, the caption indicates that coniferous trees (pine) predominate in this forest, their average height is 25 m, the average thickness is 30 cm, the average distance between tree trunks is 4 m. When depicting clearings on a map, their width is indicated in meters.

Rice. 8.14. Forests

Rice. 8.15. Shrubs

Areas covered forest undergrowth(height up to 4 m), with continuous bushes, forest nurseries inside the contour on the map are filled with appropriate symbols and painted over with pale green paint. In areas of continuous shrubs, if data is available, the type of shrub is shown with special symbols and its average height in meters is indicated.
Swamps are depicted on maps with horizontal blue shading, dividing them according to the degree of passability on foot into passable (intermittent shading), difficult to pass and impassable (solid shading). Swamps with a depth of no more than 0.6 m are considered passable; their depth is usually not indicated on maps.

Rice. 8.16. Swamps

The depth of impassable and impassable swamps is written next to the vertical arrow indicating the location of the measurement. Difficult and impassable swamps are shown on maps with the same symbol.
Salt marshes on maps they are shown with vertical blue shading, dividing them into passable (intermittent shading) and impassable (solid shading).

On topographic maps, as their scale becomes smaller, homogeneous topographic symbols are combined into groups, the latter into one generalized symbol, etc. In general, the system of these symbols can be represented in the form of a truncated pyramid, at the base of which there are signs for topographic plans at a scale of 1:500, and at the top - for survey topographic maps at a scale of 1:1,000,000.

8.5. COLORS OF TOPOGRAPHICAL SIGNS

Colors topographic symbols are the same for maps of all scales. Line marks of lands and their contours, buildings, structures, local objects, strong points and boundaries are printed upon publication black color, relief elements - brown; reservoirs, watercourses, swamps and glaciers - blue(mirror of water - light blue); area of ​​trees and shrubs - green(dwarf forests, dwarf trees, shrubs, vineyards - light green), neighborhoods with fire-resistant buildings and highways - orange, neighborhoods with non-fire-resistant buildings and improved dirt roads - yellow.
Along with topographic symbols for topographic maps, conventional abbreviations of proper names political and administrative units (for example, Lugansk region - Lug.) and explanatory terms (for example, power plant - el.-st., southwestern - SW, working village - r.p.).

8.6. CARTOGRAPHIC FONT USED ON TOPOGRAPHIC PLANS AND MAPS

A font is a graphic design of letters and numbers. The fonts used on topographic maps and maps are called cartographic.

Depending on a number of graphic features, cartographic fonts are divided into groups:
- according to the inclination of the letters - straight (ordinary) and italic with inclinations to the right and left;
- according to the width of the letters - narrow, normal and wide;
- according to lightness - light, semi-bold and bold;
- by the presence of hooks.

On topographic maps and plans, two types of basic fonts are mainly used: topographic and outline italics (Fig. 8.17).

Rice. 8.17. Core fonts and cursive writing of numbers

Topographic (hair) font T-132 is used for signing rural settlements. It is drawn with a line thickness of 0.1-0.15 mm, all elements of the letters are thin hairlines.
Blank italics is used in the design of topographic maps, agricultural maps, land management maps, etc. On topographic maps, explanatory captions and characteristics are written in italics: astronomical points, ruins, plants, factories, stations, etc. The design of the letters has a pronounced oval shape. The thickness of all elements is the same: 0.1 - 0.2 mm.
Computing font or cursive writing of numbers, belongs to the group of cursive fonts. It was designed for recording in field journals and calculation sheets, since in geodesy many processes of field and office work were associated with recording the results of instrumental measurements and their mathematical processing (see Fig. 8.17).
Modern computer technologies provide a wide, almost unlimited selection of fonts of different types, sizes, designs and slants.

8.7. INSTRUCTIONS ON TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS AND MAPS

In addition to conventional signs, topographic plans and maps contain various inscriptions. They constitute an important element of content, explain the objects depicted, indicate their qualitative and quantitative characteristics, and serve to obtain reference information.

According to their meaning, the inscriptions are:

• proper names geographical objects(cities, rivers, lakes
  and etc.);
• part of a symbol (vegetable garden, arable land);
• conventional signs and proper names at the same time (signatures of names of cities, hydrographic objects, relief);
• explanatory captions (lake, mountain, etc.);
• explanatory text (convey information about the distinctive features of objects, specify their nature and purpose) (Fig. 8.18).

The inscriptions on the cards are made in various fonts with different letter patterns. Maps can use up to 15 different fonts. The letter design of each font has elements unique to that font, which is based on knowledge of the features of various fonts.
For groups of related objects, certain fonts are used. For example, roman fonts are used for the names of cities, italic fonts are used for the names of hydrographic objects, etc. Each inscription on the map should be clearly readable.
In the location of the inscriptions of proper names there are distinctive features. The names of settlements are located on the right side of the outline parallel to the north or south side of the map frame. This position is most desirable, but not always feasible. The names should not cover the images of other objects and should not be placed within the map frame, so it is necessary to place the names to the left, above and below the outline of the settlement.

Rice. 8.18. Examples of inscriptions on maps

The names of area objects are placed inside the contours so that the label is evenly distributed over the entire area of ​​the object. The name of the river is placed parallel to its bed. Depending on the width of the river, the inscription is placed inside or outside the contour. It is customary to sign large rivers several times: at their sources, at characteristic bends, at the confluence of rivers, etc. When one river flows into another, the name inscriptions are placed so that there is no doubt about the names of the rivers. Before the merger, the main river and its tributary are signed; after the merger, the name of the main river is required.
When placing inscriptions that are not horizontal, special attention is paid to their readability. The following rule is followed: if the elongated contour along which the inscription should be placed is located from northwest to southeast, then the inscription is placed from top to bottom, if the contour stretches from north-east to southwest, then the inscription is placed from bottom to top.
The names of seas and large lakes are placed inside the contours of the basins along a smooth curve, in the direction of their length and symmetrically to the shores. Inscriptions of small lakes are placed like inscriptions of settlements.
The names of mountains are placed, if possible, to the right of the top of the mountains and parallel to the southern or northern frame. The names of mountain ranges, sand formations and deserts are written in the direction of their extent.
Explanatory inscriptions are placed parallel to the north side of the frame.
Numerical characteristics are arranged depending on the nature of the information they convey. The number of houses in rural settlements, the heights of the earth's surface and the water's edge are signed parallel to the north or south side of the frame. The speed of the river flow, the width of the roads and their covering material are located along the axis of the object.
Labels should be placed in the least crowded places cartographic image, so that there is no doubt which object they refer to. Inscriptions should not cross river confluences, characteristic relief details, or images of objects that have landmark values.

Basic rules for constructing cartographic fonts: http://www.topogis.ru/oppks.html

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. What are symbols?
2. What types of symbols do you know?
3. What objects are depicted on maps with large-scale symbols?
4. What objects are depicted on maps using out-of-scale symbols?
5. What is the purpose of the main point of an out-of-scale symbol?
6. Where is the main point located on the off-scale symbol?
7. For what purposes are color schemes used on cards?
8. For what purposes are explanatory captions and digital symbols used on maps?

As sad as it may sound, our roads are far from ideal. Both negligent officials and difficult climatic conditions can be blamed for this. Although if you remember Finland or Holland, where the climate is even more severe and the asphalt is smooth as glass, all questions disappear.

Poor-quality road surfaces lead to the fact that the car’s transmission deteriorates much faster; moreover, shock vibrations negatively affect all components of the car. The only way to combat the negative effects is to slow down in time.

But you can’t constantly look under the hood. Therefore, in most cases, the driver finds out about the bad road surface when the wheel falls into a hole. It's okay if this happens at low speed, but at high speed everything can end extremely sadly.

There are often cases when, due to bad roads and high speed, drivers lost mufflers or even wheels. Moreover, a sudden impact can cause the engine to stall. Considering that there is another car driving behind, this situation could result in an accident. Only a quick reaction and clear movements can help in case of engine failure.

Attention ! To avoid damaging your car or getting into an accident, there is a “Rough Road” sign.

This designation warns the driver that there will soon be a section that may have holes, potholes and other signs of good work by the local administration. Of course, the “Rough Road” sign is not present everywhere where the road surface is poor, so you need to be doubly careful when you see it.

History of road signs

The first road signs appeared on the streets of Paris in 1903. These were square signs. The background was black or blue, while the characters themselves were drawn in white. But in the process of evolution, this concept was changed to the opposite.

Oddly enough, the “Rough Road” sign was one of the first to appear on the city streets. Although this is easily explained by the fact that there were not so many good roads at that time.

Every year there were more and more cars on city roads. This led to an increase in the number of road accidents, in order to somehow combat this danger, a conference was held in 1909 among representatives European countries, whose main task was to solve this problem. Exactly on it the first convention was adopted that regulated the movement of cars at the international level.

What is a “Rough Road” sign and what does it look like?

The serial number of the “Rough Road” sign in the traffic rules is 1.16. This designation on the side of the road may indicate not only holes and potholes, but also, for example, the presence of a rut ahead. That is why, to maintain safety, it is necessary to be doubly careful when detecting it.

The “Rough Road” sign itself looks like a white triangle with a red border on each side. Below there is a schematic representation of the irregularities. It is made in black and looks a bit like waves. You can see it in more detail in the image below.

Meaning and correct interpretation

Knowing what a “Rough Road” sign means is not enough to take correct action when it is detected. It is necessary to understand exactly when the problem road surface will begin.

If such a designation is located within the city, then holes and potholes will begin after 50-100 meters. Outside the city limits you will have to drive at least 150 m before it starts to shake.

Attention! In some cases, a different distance to the problem section of the road is allowed. But in this situation, the “Rough Road” sign is supplemented by plate 8.1.1.

Plate 8.1.1 will indicate exactly when the road will become rough. Therefore, you will not have to worry about the condition of the vehicle. After all, reducing speed minimizes the damage the car receives from driving on uneven surfaces.

Many drivers are interested in why the distance to the problem area when installing the “Rough Road” sign is different in the city and outside it. It's actually quite simple. If you believe the statistics, then outside the city limits, the average vehicle speed is much higher. Accordingly, it takes more time to slow down.

Actions of the driver upon seeing the “Rough Road” sign

The integrity of the vehicle, as well as safety, depends on how correctly the driver acts when he sees the “Rough Road” sign. The algorithm of actions should be as follows:

1. Reduced speed.
2. View the quality of the road surface. This precaution will allow you to avoid the most problematic areas.
3. Monitoring road markings. Sometimes paying too close attention to irregularities leads to a loss of vigilance and driving into the oncoming lane.

Following these simple instructions when you see a “Rough Road” sign will allow you to easily reach your final destination without creating an emergency.

Results

Of course, this road sign plays a significant role in traffic control. Its main task is to warn the driver about the difficult section that lies ahead. Special meaning has where you will find this symbol. If within the city, the distance to the problem area will be about 100 meters, on a country road it will be 150 or more.