Handbook on military topography, topographic and special maps, measurements on a map and terrain, terrain orientation -. Handbook of Military Topography Section ii map scale

MILITARY-TOPOGRAPHIC DIRECTORATE OF THE GENERAL STAFF OF THE RED ARMY
GUIDE TO MILITARY TOPOGRAPHY
Military Publishing House of the People's Commissariat of Defense
1942

Compiled by Major General of the Technical Troops. Prepared for printing at the Research Institute of the Military Topographical Service of the Red Army.

INTRODUCTION

In all types of combat, proper use of terrain is extremely important.

Small unit commanders and soldiers study the terrain directly in situ. Higher commanders do not always have this opportunity and use a topographic map for this. A map is a reduced-scale image of an area on paper.

However, for commanders who have the opportunity to study the terrain directly, a map is necessary, since often the terrain is visible only at a short distance, and in order to complete the assigned task, commanders need to know the nature of the terrain not only in the location of their troops, but also in the depth of the enemy’s location; in this case, the map is almost the only means for exploring the area.

In addition, unit commanders are often assigned combat missions based on the map, for example, to occupy any heights or settlements, the location of which is indicated on the map. Likewise, unit commanders have to refer to the map when reporting the results of the battle and their location.

Consequently, the map establishes a common language between the boss and subordinates.

Often, to calculate the movement of troops, to solve engineering, artillery and other problems, you need to know the distances between different points of the terrain. Instead of direct measurements, these distances can easily be determined from a map.

Obviously, the first map contains only the most basic elements of the area: large settlements, main communication routes, large rivers and lakes, large tracts of forest, etc. The second map gives a more detailed image of the area: all settlements, down to individual farmsteads, all communication routes, including field roads, and sometimes trails, all rivers, streams and small lakes, groves and isolated trees that serve as landmarks.

The detail of the card must be consistent with the purpose of the card. The commander of a small unit needs the most detailed map. The commander of a large formation requires a map with less detail, and only for certain areas of the terrain he may need a more detailed map. The degree of detail and accuracy of a map is mainly determined by its scale.

When talking about map detail, you need to keep in mind that map detail is a very relative concept, since even on such a large-scale map as 1:10000, some small details of the area are omitted and not plotted on the map. The smaller the scale of the map, the more details of the area are omitted from it.

You should pay attention to the year of filming. The map shows the area in the year the survey was taken. In the process of preparing the map for publication, changes continue to occur in the area: new roads are laid, new buildings are erected, forests are cut down or planted, swamps are drained, the area of ​​arable land increases, etc.

It is absolutely clear that the more time has passed since the shooting, the greater changes should be expected in the area. These changes occur especially quickly in industrial and densely populated rural areas. Periodically, after 10-15 years, the map is reconnaissance and corrected, but still it displays the area only in the year of survey or reconnaissance.

It should also be taken into account that the card is removed in the summer. In winter, many details of the terrain are hidden under snow, and in some cases roads are not laid at all where they were in the summer, and, therefore, not where they are shown on the map. Therefore, the presence of even a relatively recent map does not relieve the commander using it from the need to reconnaissance and study the terrain during combat operations.

SECTION I CLASSIFICATION OF CARDS

Topographic maps supplied to the Red Army are divided into tactical and operational according to their content and purpose.

Tactical cards

Tactical maps are the most detailed, large-scale maps, usually published in four colors: water - blue, relief - brown, forests - green, all other elements - black.

Tactical map scales: 1:25000, 1:50000 and 1:100000.

Map scale 1:25000 (1cm=250m). A map of scale 1:25000 is published for individual borders or areas that are operationally important. It depicts in detail settlements, road and hydrographic networks, local objects and relief details.

The large scale and detail of this map make it very convenient for plotting the situation and directing the battle when breaking through the enemy’s fortified zone.

Using a map at a scale of 1:25000, you can prepare data for accurate firing of artillery, machine guns and mortars (sight, protractor, level).

The height of the relief section on a map of scale 1:25000 is 5 m. Distances on this map can be determined with an error of no more than 25 m, and elevations - with an error of no more than 2.5 m.

Map scale 1:50000 (1cm 500m). A 1:50,000 scale map usually covers larger areas than a 1:25,000 scale map, and as a result is more widely used in both infantry and artillery in various types of combat.

This map is also convenient to use in the headquarters of large formations, especially when breaking through a fortified enemy zone.

Using a map of scale 1:50000, just like using a map of scale 1:25000, but with less accuracy, you can obtain initial data for shooting.

The height of the relief section on a map of scale 1:50000 is 10 m. Distances on this map can be determined with an error of no more than 50 m, and elevations with an error of up to 5 m.

Map scale 1:100000 (1 cm is 1 km). A 1:100,000 scale map covers almost the entire European part of the USSR, the entire Caucasus and all the most important regions of Central Asia, Siberia and the Far East.

This map, although without such details, like maps at scales 1:25000 and 1:50000, depicts all settlements, road and water networks and shows in sufficient detail the contours of the soil and vegetation cover and the main landforms,

A map sheet at a scale of 1:100000 covers a fairly large area (in the middle latitudes of the USSR about 1200 sq. km).

Thanks to these qualities, the 1:100,000 scale map is the most widely used. It is used by commanders and staffs of formations and units of troops, and in mobile types of combat by unit commanders.

A 1:100,000 scale map is not intended for preparing initial data for artillery fire, and for these purposes it is used only in the absence of larger scale maps and when there is insufficient time to prepare initial data using a geodetic method.

Main height. The relief section on a map of scale 1:100000 is 20 m. Distances on this map can be determined with an error of no more than 100 m, and elevations with an error of no more than 10 m.

Map scale 1:10000 (1 cm 100 m). In addition to the indicated tactical maps, maps at a scale of 1:10000 are created for individual areas. They are used to break through the enemy’s defense system, which has a dense network of complex fortifications and engineering structures, as well as in battles for large populated areas.

A 1:10000 scale map is the most detailed and accurate.

Operational cards

Operational maps are intended to draw up general considerations for the conduct of war, to solve problems related to the deployment of armies, the organization of their rear, military communications and ensuring the actions of large military formations. . The solution to these problems involves the study of large territories and, at the same time, does not require great detail in depicting the area.

Operational maps include maps of small scales: 1:200000, 1:500000 and 1:1000000. These cards are usually published in several colors.

Map scale 1: 200000 (1 cm 2 km). The 1:200,000 scale map is intended for the operational work of headquarters, special services, as well as for organizing the interaction of troops.

A map of scale 1: 200,000 is convenient to use for studying the road network and for making calculations when conducting marches, primarily for motorized and tank units.

The main section of the relief on a map of scale 1:200000 is 40 m, and on sheets published before 1942 it is 50 m. The contour lines on this map express only the general character and main forms of the relief; Heights can be determined from them only approximately, with an error of 30-40 m. Distances from the map can be determined with an error of the order of 300 m.

Maps of scales 1: 500000 (5 km in 1 cm) and 1:1000000 (10 km in 1 cm). These cards are intended to serve the headquarters of fronts and armies and are widely used in aviation. Small settlements are not marked on them, but the road and hydrographic network, relief and elements of soil and vegetation cover are generalized.

Maps are convenient for developing large operations for calculating the movement of troops, for organizing logistics services, etc.

Distances from these maps can be determined approximately, with an error of up to 0.5-1 km.

Inch scale topographic maps

The topographic maps published earlier in old Russian measures correspond to the following modern maps in metric measures:

1:21000 (half layout) = 1:25000
1:42000 (layout) = 1:50000
1:84000 (two-layout) = 1:100000
1:126000 (three-verst) = no
1:210000 (five verst) = 1:200000
1:420000 (ten verstka) = 1:500000
1:1050000 (twenty-five layouts) = 1:1000000

By analogy with inch scale maps, metric scale maps are often called for convenience as follows:

1:25000 (250 m in 1 cm) - quarter-kilometer;

1:50000 (500 m in 1 cm) - half a kilometer;

1:100000 (1 cm in 1 km) - kilometers;

1:200000 (2 km in 1 cm) - two kilometers;

1:500000 (5 km in 1 cm) - five-kilometer;

1:1000000 (1 cm 10 km) - ten kilometers.

These names give a clearer idea of ​​the scale of the map, as they directly indicate which distances on the ground correspond to one centimeter on the map.

SECTION II MAP SCALE

The scale shows how many times the actual distances and terrain lines are reduced on the map. Thus, the scale of the map is the degree to which the terrain lines are reduced when depicting them on the map.

On maps, scale is given in two forms: numerical and linear.

The numerical scale is depicted as a fraction in which the numerator is equal to one, and the denominator is a number showing how many times the terrain lines are reduced on the map. So, for example, scales of 1:25000, 1:50000, 1:100000 and 1:500000 show that on the map, compared to the terrain, all linear dimensions are reduced by 25000, 50000, 100000 and 500000 times, or that 1 cm on the map corresponds to terrains of 25000 cm, 50000 cm, 100000 cm and 500000 cm, i.e. 250 m, 500 m, 1 km and 5 km.

It is useful to remember the rule: if you cross out the last two zeros in the denominator of a numerical scale, the remaining number will show how many meters are contained in 1 cm of the map.

A linear scale is a straight line or strip divided into equal parts.

The numbers show what distances on the ground correspond to the scale divisions.

Name: Military topography.

This textbook outlines a course in military topography, knowledge of which is necessary for every officer
The first section of the textbook discusses the classification, mathematical basis and geometric essence of topographic maps, their content, methods of reading and measuring them. The properties of aerial photographs, the basics of their military interpretation and the rules for their use in solving combat missions are also discussed here.
The second section is devoted to terrain orientation in various ways, including using navigation equipment
The third section, in relation to the practical activities of unit commanders, discusses the use of maps for studying terrain, assessing its tactical properties, command and control of troops and target designation in various types of combat, as well as drawing up combat graphic documents, the procedure and methods for conducting terrain reconnaissance
The appendix contains samples of topographic maps, tables of symbols, and various types of aerial photographs.

Terrain is one of the main and constantly operating factors in the combat situation, significantly influencing the combat activity of troops. Features of the terrain that influence the organization, conduct of combat and the use of military equipment are called its tactical properties. The main ones include its maneuverability and orientation conditions, camouflage and protective properties, observation and firing conditions.
Skillful use of the tactical properties of the terrain contributes to the most effective use of weapons and military equipment, secrecy of maneuver and surprise attacks on the enemy, camouflage from observation and protection of troops from enemy fire. Consequently, when performing combat missions, each serviceman must be able to quickly and correctly study the terrain and evaluate its tactical properties.

Content
Introduction
§ 1. Subject, content, tasks and method of military topography
§ 2 The place and role of military topography in the system of combat training of troops
SECTION ONE
TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS AND AERIAL PICTURES, THEIR USE IN THE TROOPS
Chapter 1. Classification, purpose and geometric essence of maps
§ 3. Main types of cards
1.Features of the cartographic image
2. General geographical and special maps
3. Classification and purpose of topographic maps
§ 4. Mathematical basis for constructing maps
1. Geometric essence of the cartographic image
2. Distortions in map projections
3. Geodetic support networks
§ 5. Projections of Soviet topographic maps
1.Projection of maps at scales 1:25,000-1:500,000
2.Projection of a map at a scale of 1:1000000
§ b. Layout and nomenclature of topographic maps
1. Card layout system
2. Nomenclature of map sheets
3. Selection and extraction of the nomenclature of map sheets for the required area.
Chapter 2. Map measurements
§ 7. Measuring distances and areas
1.Map scale
2.Measuring lines on the map
3 Accuracy of measuring distances on the map
4. Corrections to distances for slope and tortuosity of lines
5. The simplest ways to measure areas on a map
§ 8. Determination of coordinates of terrain points and objects (targets) from a map
1.Coordinate systems used in topography
2. Determination of geographical coordinates
3.Determination of rectangular coordinates
§ 9. Measurement using a map of directional angles and azimuths
1. Azimuths and directional angles
2.Measuring and plotting directional angles on the map
3.Transition from directional angle to magnetic azimuth and back
Chapter 3: Reading Topographic Maps
§ 10. System of symbols on maps
1. Completeness and detail of the terrain image
2.Principles of construction and application of symbols on maps
3 Forks of symbols
4.Color design (coloring) of cards
5. Explanatory captions and digital designations
6.General rules for reading cards
§eleven. Relief depiction on maps
1.Types and elementary forms of relief
2. The essence of the relief image with horizontal lines
3.Types of contour lines
4 Representation of elementary relief forms by horizontal lines
5.Features of depicting horizontal and mountainous terrain with contours
6. Conventional signs of relief elements that are not expressed by contours
Features of the relief image on maps of scales 1:500,000 and 1:1000,000
§ 12. Studying the relief from the map
1. Study of the structure and elementary forms of relief
2. Determination of absolute heights and mutual elevations of terrain points
3.Determination of ascents and descents
4. Determination of the shape and steepness of the slopes
§ 13. Representation of water bodies on maps
1.Coastal stripes and shores of seas, large lakes and rivers
2. Lakes, reservoirs and other bodies of water
3.Rivers, canals and other objects of river systems
4.Wells and other sources of water
5.Additional data on water bodies contained in information about the area on a map at a scale of 1:200,000
§ 14. Image of vegetation and soil
1. Main elements of vegetation cover
2. Ground cover
§ 15. Image of settlements, industrial enterprises and socio-cultural objects
1.Settlements
2.Industrial and agricultural production enterprises and facilities
3. Communication facilities, power lines, pipelines, airfields and socio-cultural facilities
§ 16. Image of the road network
1.Railroads
2.Highway and dirt roads
§ 17. Boundaries and geodetic points
1.Borders and fences
2. Geodetic points and individual local objects - landmarks
Chapter 4. Aerial photographs of the area
§ 18. Types and properties of aerial photographs
1.Aerial photographs as reconnaissance and measurement documents
2.Types of aerial photographs
3 Use of aerial photographs by troops
4. Geometric essence of aerial photographs
5. The concept of distortion in aerial photographs
6. Visual properties of aerial photographs
7. The concept of photographic documents
§ 19. Preparation of aerial photographs for work
1. Linking aerial photographs to the map
2. Determining the scale of a planned aerial photograph
3.Applying the direction of the magnetic meridian to aerial photographs
4. The concept of preparation for work and the use of perspective aerial photographs
§ 20. Measurements from aerial photographs
1.Accessories for working with aerial photographs
2. Sterescopic (volumetric) examination of aerial photographs
3. Determination of distances and sizes of objects from aerial photographs
4. Transferring objects from an aerial photograph to a map
5. Determination of rectangular coordinates from aerial photographs
§ 21. Interpretation of aerial photographs
1. Unmasking (decryption) signs
2.Methods of deciphering aerial photographs
3. Reliability and completeness of interpretation of aerial photographs
4.Decryption of terrain objects
5. The concept of deciphering tactical objects
SECTION TWO
TERRAIN ORIENTATION
Chapter 5. Orientation using a map and aerial photographs
§ 22. The essence of orientation
§ 23. Determination of distances during terrain orientation and target designation
1.Eye meter
2. Determination of distances based on the measured angular dimensions of objects
3. Determination of distances using the speedometer
4. Measurement in steps
5. Determination of distances based on movement time
§ 24. Instruments and methods for determining directions and measuring angles on the ground
1.Magnetic compass and its application
2.Gyrohalf-compass and its use
3. On-site measurement of horizontal angles
4. Determining and maintaining the direction of movement according to the celestial bodies
§ 25. Techniques for orienting on a map (aerial photograph)
1. Map orientation
2. Determination of your location on a map (aerial photograph)
3. Comparison of the map with the terrain
§ 26. Map orientation while moving along a given route
1.Preparing for orienteering
2. Orientation on the way
3. Features of orientation when moving in various conditions
4. Restoring lost orientation
§ 27. Movement along azimuths
1.Preparing data for movement in azimuths
2. Movement in azimuths
3.Avoiding obstacles
4. Finding the way back
5.Accuracy of movement in azimuths
§ 2S. Responsibilities of unit commanders to ensure orientation and target designation on the battlefield
1.Selection and use of landmarks
2 Terrain orientation for commanders of subordinate and supporting units
3. Activities that provide orientation when operating at night and on terrain poor in landmarks
Chapter 6. Terrain orientation using ground navigation equipment
§ 29. Operating principle and main devices of navigation equipment
1. The principle of determining the current coordinates of a moving car
2. Basic navigation equipment
3. Machine location accuracy
§ 30. Preparation for orientation
1. Inspection and commissioning of equipment
2. Balancing the direction indicator gyroscope
3.Checking the machine's sighting device
4.Studying the route and preparing a map
5.Preparation of initial data
6.Setting coordinates and directional angle
§ 31. Orientation on the terrain with the help of a coordinator
§ 32. Features of preparation for work and operation of the course plotter
R SECTION THREE
USE OF MAPS AND AERIAL PICTURES BY UNIT COMMANDERS
Chapter 7. Map as a management tool
§ 33. Preparing the map for work
1.Acquaintance with the map
2.Gluing the card
3.Folding the card
4.Raising the card
§ 34. Basic rules for maintaining and using a work card
1.Basic rules for drawing the situation on a working map
2.Use of the map when making reports, setting tasks and drawing up combat documents
§ 35. Techniques for mapping elements of your battle order and goals
1.Identification of landmarks and goals and plotting them on the map
2. Mapping the elements of your battle order
3.Determination on the ground and mapping of invisibility fields
§ 36. Target designation using maps and aerial photographs
1. Target designation in rectangular coordinates
2. Target indication by kilometer grid squares
3. Target designation from the conditional line
4. Target designation from the nearest landmarks and contours shown on the map
5. Target designation by azimuth and range to the target
6. Target designation from aerial photographs
Chapter 8. Study of the area by the unit commander
§ 37. General rules for studying and assessing terrain
§ 38. Determination of the general character of the area
§ 39. Study of observation conditions and camouflage properties of the area
1. Determination of the mutual visibility of points using a map
2.Definition and mapping of invisibility fields
3.Construction of terrain profiles from a map
4. The influence of the curvature of the Earth and atmospheric refraction on the observation range
§ 40 Study of terrain conditions
1. Study of the road network
2.Study of off-road terrain
3. Conclusions on the influence of terrain maneuverability on the performance of a combat mission
§ 41. Study of the protective properties of the area
1. Study of the protective properties of the relief
2. Study of the protective properties of forests and the nature of soils and soils
3. Conclusions on the influence of the protective properties of the terrain on the performance of a combat mission
§ 42. Study of firing conditions
1. Determining the depth of the shelter
2.Determining the angle of cover
3. Determination of target elevation angle
§ 43. The concept of predicting changes in terrain in the area of ​​a nuclear explosion
1. Determination of the degree of destruction of terrain objects and the heat of fires
2.Representation of forecasting results on the map
§ 44. Example of study and assessment of the terrain on the map by the commander
motorized rifle platoon assigned to the main marching outpost
§ 45. An example of studying and assessing the “terrain by the commander of a motorized rifle company when advancing from direct contact with the enemy
Chapter 9. Area reconnaissance
§ 46. Methods of reconnaissance of the area
1.Observation
2. Inspection of the area by patrols
3. Examination
§ 47. Route reconnaissance
§ 46. Reconnaissance of individual terrain objects
1.Reconnaissance of forests
2. Exploration of the swamp
3.Reconnaissance of the river
4. The concept of reconnaissance of terrain changes at the source of a nuclear explosion
§ 49. Graphic documents with intelligence information
1. Graphic recording of intelligence information in units
2.Types of combat graphic documents
3.Rules for drawing combat graphic documents
4. Techniques for drawing up terrain diagrams using a map or aerial photographs
Applications:
1. List of abbreviated captions used on topographic maps
II. Some approximate data on terrain traversability
III. Making a model on site
IV. Answers to examples and problems
Alphabetical subject index
V. Samples of topographic maps of the USSR
VI. Representation on maps of some varieties of flat, hilly and mountainous terrain
VII. Tables of symbols of topographic maps
VIII. Clippings from maps at scales 1:50,000 and 1:100,000
IX. Samples of aerial photographs for interpretation

CONTENT

Introduction 3
Section I. Classification of cards 6
Section II. Map scale 11
Section III. Determining the sides of the horizon 19
Section IV. Orientation 24
Section V. Movement on the map 33
Section VI. True and magnetic azimuths 36
Section VII. Relief image on maps 48
Section VIII. Grid on map 62
Section IX. Contents of the map 69
Section X. Request and selection of cards. Nomenclature of cards 76
Section XI. Familiarization with the card and handling it 83
Section XII. Using maps to compile graphic documents 95
Section XIII. Visual photography techniques for drawing up graphic documents 100
Section XIV. How to Study Military Topography in the Field 105
Applications:
1. List of abbreviations for topographic maps 108
2. Table for converting degrees to protractor divisions from 0° to 90° 113
3. Some background information 114
4. Average tree heights, trunk diameters and number of trunks per hectare 116
5. Wind strength on a twelve-point scale 118
6. Table of symbols 119

INTRODUCTION
In all types of combat, proper use of terrain is extremely important.
Small unit commanders and soldiers study the terrain directly in situ. Higher commanders usually have to first study the terrain using a topographic map.
A map is a reduced-scale image of an area on paper. It is necessary for all commanders, since often the terrain is visible only at a short distance, and to complete the assigned task it is necessary to know the nature of the terrain not only in the location of one’s troops, but also in the depth of the enemy’s location; in this case, the area can be studied using a map or aerial photographs.
Consequently, the map is a document that helps the commander control troops in battle, allowing him to have a visual representation of the location of his troops, and, if appropriate data is available, of the enemy’s troops.
In our Soviet conditions, the map is needed not only by the troops. The map is used in all areas of socialist construction; the creation of the great construction projects of communism "requires production
Topographic surveys before the start of construction work.
Special research institutions are engaged in the development of issues related to the content and production of maps in the Soviet Union. Our map at all stages of its creation (geodetic substantiation, aerial survey, topographic, cartographic and map publishing work) is produced according to a single, pre-developed scientific plan. Our Soviet topographic maps are the best in the world in content, accuracy and design.
Issues of studying terrain using a map for military purposes are considered in military topography. With a good knowledge of military topography, a large-scale map can provide fairly detailed information about the area.
Our Soviet map allows us to study not only the relative position of terrain objects, but also the qualitative condition of many objects - the height of trees and their thickness. trunks, permeability and depth of swamps, depth of rivers and speed of their flow, steepness of slopes, etc.
The degree of detail and accuracy of a map is mainly determined by its scale: the larger the scale of the map, the more detailed and accurate it is.
The card should be chosen in accordance with the task that requires the eye to solve. The commander of the same unit will require different cards when solving different problems. To conduct an offensive battle or defense, you need a detailed map; for the same commander, when organizing a march, it is enough to have a map with less detail and therefore on a smaller scale.
However, studying a map cannot completely replace direct study of the area.
The map shows the area as it was in the year it was taken; changes that occurred in the area after the survey can only be revealed by direct inspection or through aerial photography. These changes are occurring especially quickly in our Soviet Union in connection with the implementation of Stalin’s plan for the transformation of nature and the construction of the great construction projects of communism. The terrain in large areas changes significantly in a short time. Therefore, when using the map, you must pay attention to the year of surveying indicated on the map. It should also be taken into account that the card is removed in the summer. Seasonal changes are not shown on the map.
The proposed reference book contains a brief summary of the main issues of military topography encountered in the practice of officers, and is intended as a reference guide in the field.
When directly studying the terrain, it is advisable to plot on the map the changes that occurred on the terrain after the survey, and some details that are not shown on the map, but are important when performing a combat mission. Therefore, the reference book outlines the simplest ways to plot terrain features on a map.
Compared to previous editions, the following changes have been made to this guide:
- a classification of maps is given in accordance with the classification currently accepted in textbooks on military topography;
- the latest changes and additions to the symbols of topographic maps are taken into account;
- added a section on visual photography.

SECTION 1
CLASSIFICATION OF CARDS
Topographic maps are divided by scale into large-scale, medium-scale and small-scale.
Large scale maps
Large-scale maps include maps at scales 1: 10,000, 1: 25,000 and 1: 50,000.
Large-scale maps depict in great detail all elements of the terrain - settlements, road networks, hydrography, relief, vegetation cover and various structures.
In the military, large-scale maps are used for detailed study of the terrain, plotting the location of battle formations, planning the fire system and terrain engineering equipment, topographic preparation of artillery fire, target designation, determining distances, steepness of slopes, and for other purposes.
Large-scale maps are used by commanders of all levels.
Map scale 1:10,000 (1 cm 100 m). A very accurate and detailed topographic map. All elements of the terrain on this map are depicted almost without generalizations. The height of the relief section is 2.5 m.
Distances on this map can be determined with an accuracy of at least 10 m, and elevations with an accuracy of 1 m.
A map sheet at a scale of 1: 10,000 covers a relatively small area (in mid-latitudes 18 - 20 sq. km). Taking this map requires a lot of effort and money, so it is produced only for certain economically important areas or areas.
In the military, a map of a scale of 1: 10,000 is required in cases where it is necessary to make measurements on the map with the accuracy indicated above or when it is necessary to plot a number of objects on the map that cannot be placed on a map of a smaller scale; in the latter case, the map can usually be replaced by a diagram of the same scale.
Map scale 1:25,000 (1 cm 250 m). This is also a detailed map. The height of the relief section on it is 5 m. Distances are determined with an accuracy of at least 25 m, and heights and elevations with an accuracy of at least 2.5 m. One sheet of the map covers an area of ​​75 - 80 square meters in the middle latitudes. km.
By troops, the 1:25,000 scale map is used in all cases where an accurate and detailed map is required. This map is widely used in artillery to determine the initial data when firing.
Map scale 1:50,000 (1 cm 500 m). A map at a scale of 1:50,000 is quite detailed and accurate, but at the same time covers a significant area: in mid-latitudes, one map sheet covers about 300 square meters. km. Thanks to these qualities, this card is widely used among the troops.
According to a map of scale 1:50,000, the same as for a map of scale 1:25,000, but with less accuracy
This way, you can obtain initial data for shooting.
The height of the relief section on a map of scale 1: 50,000 is equal to 10 m. Distances on this map can be determined with an error of no more than 50 m, and elevations - with an error of up to 5 m.

Medium-scale maps
Medium-scale maps include maps at scales 1: 100,000 and 1: 200,000.
When compiling medium-scale maps, significant generalizations of terrain elements are inevitably made. These maps do not display the density of settlements, but only convey the nature of their layout; lakes, rivers, streams are shown as much as possible, but their outlines are significantly generalized; secondary roads in areas with a dense road network are not mapped; vegetation cover and other terrain features are also summarized.
In the military, medium-scale maps are used at the headquarters of units and formations to study the general nature of the terrain, solve operational problems, direct the battle of units and formations, and also to plan the placement of rear institutions.
Map scale 1: 100,000 (1 cm 1000 g). When drawing up this map, one square centimeter on paper has to depict a square kilometer of terrain. Naturally, it is necessary to make generalizations, therefore, according to the modern classification, this map is classified as a medium-scale map. At the same time, a map of scale 1: 100,000 has many qualities of large-scale maps: it, although with inevitable generalizations, depicts
all populated areas without exception, the road network is depleted only through field roads, and then only in areas with a dense road network; in sparsely populated areas, the road network is laid out completely, right down to pack roads and trails. The relief on this map is depicted with horizontal lines quite clearly. As a result of these qualities, this map was previously classified as large-scale.
The height of the main section of the relief on a map of scale 1: 100,000 is 20 m. Distances are determined with an accuracy of at least 100 m, and elevations with an accuracy of at least 10 m. One sheet of this map depicts an area in the middle latitudes of about 1200 square meters. km.
Thanks to these qualities, the 1:100,000 scale map is the most widely used. It is used by commanders of formations and units, as well as military staff officers, and in mobile types of combat, also by unit commanders.
A 1:100,000 scale map is not intended for preparing initial data for artillery fire; for this purpose it is used only in the absence of larger scale maps and when there is insufficient time to prepare initial data using a geodetic method.
Map scale 1: 200,000 (2000 m in 1 cm). A map at a scale of 1:200,000 is used by troops for the operational work of headquarters, organizing the interaction of large formations, studying the road network, calculating the movement of troops along dirt roads and for other purposes.
The main cross-section of the relief is 40 m. The horizontal lines on this map express only the general character and main forms of the relief; It is possible to determine heights from them only approximately, with accuracy
30 - 40 m. Distances are determined with an accuracy of about 300 m. One sheet of map covers an area of ​​4000 - 4500 square meters in mid-latitudes. km. For the western part of the USSR, maps at a scale of 1: 200,000 are published in quadruple sheets.
Small scale maps
Small-scale maps include maps of scales 1:500,000 and 1:1,000,000. Each square centimeter of these maps depicts 25 and 100 square kilometers, respectively. All terrain elements are therefore highly generalized on these maps. In inhabited areas, small settlements are not shown on these maps; the road and hydrographic network, relief and elements of soil and vegetation cover are generalized.
Small-scale maps are used at headquarters to plan operations. Distances on these maps can be determined with an accuracy of 0.5 - 1 km.
Topographic map names
Topographic maps according to scale are called:
1:10,000 - ten-thousandth,
1:25,000 - twenty-five thousandth,
1:50,000 - fifty thousandth,
1:100,000 - one hundred thousandth,
1:200,000 - two hundred thousandth,
1:500,000 - five hundred thousandth,
1:1,000,000 - millionth.
It should be remembered that the larger the denominator of the Scale, the smaller the scale of the map.

SECTION II
MAP SCALE
Map scale is the degree to which terrain lines are reduced when depicting them on a map.
On maps, scale is given in two forms: numerical and linear.
The numerical scale is depicted as a fraction in which the numerator is equal to one, and the denominator is a number showing how many times the terrain lines are reduced on the map. For example, scales 1: 25,000, 1: 50,000, 1: 100,000 and 1: 500,000 show that on the map, compared to the terrain, all linear dimensions are reduced by 25,000, 50,000, 100,000 and 500,000 times or that 1 cm on the map corresponds on the ground to 25,000 cm, 50,000 cm, 100,000 cm and 500,000 cm, i.e. 250 m, 500 m, 1 km and 5 km.
It is useful to remember the rule: if you cross out the last two zeros in the denominator of a numerical scale, the remaining number will show how many meters are contained in 1 cm of the map.
A linear scale is a straight line or strip (Fig. 1), divided into equal parts.
The numbers show what distances on the ground correspond to the scale divisions.
On sheets of maps of scales 1: 25,000, 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000, linear scales are drawn as shown in Fig. 1.
It can be seen from the figure that the base of the linear scale on our topographic maps is 1 cm, and the smallest division of the linear scale printed on the map is 1 mm. This smallest division on maps of scales 1: 25,000, 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000 corresponds to distances of 25, 50 and 100 m on the ground.

Determining distances on the map
In order to determine on a map the distance between any points on the terrain, using a numerical scale, you need to measure on the map the distance in centimeters between these points and multiply this distance by the denominator of the scale.
For example, the distance measured on a map of scale 1:50,000 is 3.2 cm. Multiplying 3.2 cm by 50,000 (scale denominator), we obtain that the required distance on the ground will be equal to 160,000 cm, or 1600 m.
It is more convenient to determine distances using a linear scale. To do this, just use a compass or a strip of paper to plot the distance between the desired points on the map and apply this distance to a linear scale. From the inscriptions on it you can immediately see what the distance on the ground is.
In Fig. 2, the distance from the bridge to the eastern outskirts of Lipka is 1780 m.
If you need to determine the distance between two points along a broken line, for example along a road, then each distance between the turns of the road is determined separately and then their sum is taken.
Distances that are approximately parallel to grid lines can be approximated by counting the number of grid squares located between the end points of the distances. So, for example, the distance from north
from the southern outskirts of Smolyanets to the southern outskirts of Yuryatino (Fig. 33) along a country road going through Glachenka is approximately 7 km (37th grid square).

Drawing objects on a map at a given distance and direction
In practice, it is necessary not only to determine the distance between objects on a map, but also to plot objects on the map according to known distances and directions.
Example (Fig. 3). Map scale 1: 100,000.
On the Yevlevo-Shilovo road, at a distance of 3800 m from the eastern outskirts of Yevlevo, an anti-tank gun was installed. You need to plot the location of the gun on the map.
To do this, you should take the distance corresponding to 3800 m on a linear scale and plot this distance on the map from Yevlevo along the road to Shilovo. At the end of the delayed distance there will be the location of the anti-tank gun on the map.
Making a linear scale
The scale is printed at the bottom of each map sheet, below the south border. However, to use it, you must unfold the folded card every time, which is not always convenient. Therefore, to determine distances, it is more convenient to have a separate ruler, divided into centimeters and millimeters. It is as easy to use as a linear scale, and you can directly measure distances on a map with this ruler.
Example. To determine the distance from a road intersection to a separate tree (Fig. 4), you need to apply a ruler as indicated in the figure and count the number of centimeters and millimeters.
In this case, the ruler reading is 5 cm and 6 mm. The map scale is 1: 50,000, i.e. one centimeter contains 500 Mt a c. one millimeter is 50 m. This means that the determined distance will be equal to 2500 + 300 = 2800 m.
If you don’t have a ready-made ruler, then it’s easy to make one on a strip of paper and glue the strip onto cardboard. For ease of measurement, it is useful to place the labels of the divisions as they are printed on the corresponding linear scale.
END OF PARAGMEHTA BOOKS

Contains a complete course of military topography. The presentation is distinguished by brevity, complete coverage of the material, accessibility and clarity of presentation. Designed to teach students how to study and evaluate terrain, navigate it, use topographic and special maps, geodetic data and photographic documents, as well as take measurements on the ground when organizing, conducting combat operations and commanding troops. It is based on a course of lectures and practical classes conducted by the authors over several years at the Faculty of Military Training. Corresponds to the Federal State Educational Standard for Higher Education 3+ and the content of the cycle of disciplines F.01 “Military Training” of state educational standards for the preparation of bachelors and masters. For students of higher educational institutions studying the discipline “General Tactics”.

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