Topography conventional signs and designations. Topographic signs for schoolchildren

Topography at school is an integral part of geography. From about 6th grade, schoolchildren begin to become familiar with a variety of signs and symbols. It is important for children to remember the signs and learn to understand them in order to read topographic maps without difficulty.

Topographical signs for schoolchildren represent a system symbols, which are used to depict objects, phenomena and their quality and quantity.

That is, for example, a “deforestation” sign will indicate the location and scale of the work. And by the nature of the “cliff” sign you can understand how different the landscape there is in height from the rest of the area.

Why are they needed?

Topographic signs are used in cartography for maps of areas. Usually this is a schematic image small areas, for example, several villages of a region or forest areas.

Topographic maps are of particular value for tourists, surveyors, geographers, hydrometeorologists and residents of the described area. School students learn to read map data, because topographic maps are the simplest and most effective teaching material.

How are topographical plans created?

Before creating a topographical drawing of a certain area, surveyors carefully study it. As a rule, an effective method of exploring a space is to take photographs from above. It makes it possible to accurately position objects.

A contour-combined shot is considered popular and very convenient. The horizontal lines on it indicate the relief. Stereotopographic photography is different in that geographers take many shots of the same area from different points. After this, the photographs are superimposed on each other and a more voluminous image is obtained.

On the terrain itself, cartographers take measurements using tools such as mensula and kipregel. Surveyors use them to determine the heights of the most important points in the landscape. After all the necessary measurements have been taken, the map image is designed using computer programs and then print.

Symbols on a topographic map

Topographic signs for schoolchildren, which are put on maps in atlases, are the most common, basic, and most necessary. These signs are easily perceived and well remembered.

Common signs on a topographic map and their meanings

One of the important and necessary symbols is scale. Every card has this sign.

It indicates how much real distance fits in 1 cm of the drawing. Typically, all terrain plans are large-scale - up to 10,000 in 1 cm. Topographic maps are depicted on a scale of 25,000-500,000 in 1 cm.

Topographical signs are divided into the following groups:

1. strongholds and settlements;
2. industrial and agricultural facilities;
3. sociocultural objects;
4. infrastructure;
5. bodies of water;
6. relief and landscape;
7. soils and flora.

The group of strongholds and populated areas includes signs indicating residential and non-residential buildings, for example, “destructions”; in addition, the sizes of buildings are often also indicated using small numerical designations. The reference points are the designations of heights, geodetic stations and other things.

Industrial symbols differ in that they represent plants, factories, logging bases, etc. Agricultural signs indicate the nature of development of a given territory. Examples: “apiary”, “pen for cattle”.

Sociocultural symbols include designations of schools, clubs, libraries and other things. These signs show what institutions are in the area. Topographic signs indicating infrastructure indicate the nature of the roads laid in a given location. Whether these are high-speed highways or ordinary forest paths can be determined by looking at the map.

Water signs indicate water sources within the area. It is possible to determine whether an area is marshy or not and whether it is prone to flooding or flooding.

Topographic signs indicating relief indicate differences in elevation. These signs are especially relevant for mountainous areas. Signs “soils and flora” help to understand what soils are in a given area, whether they are suitable for Agriculture, as well as what species of animals live in this area.

Strongholds and settlements

Signs related to the group of strongholds and settlements are among the most necessary. Using these signs, you can navigate and go to a populated area or find the closest point where you will receive help.

Topographical signs of this type are important for schoolchildren in studying geography. The table shows the types of topographic signs that belong to this group.

Strong points	Settlements
geodetic network points; mounds; buildings (can be scaled, can be designated conditionally); survey network points; leveling marks and benchmarks; astronomical points.	residential and non-residential buildings; detached buildings; courtyards separated from villages; destroyed/dilapidated buildings (can be scaled); religious sites; nomadic sites; neighborhoods; tunnels and overpasses; underground passages; impassable or impassable areas of space.

Industrial and agricultural facilities

Topographic signs for schoolchildren belonging to the group of industrial and agricultural include signs indicating plants, factories, and mills. The great variety of signs in this group makes it possible to indicate the nature of the enterprise in the smallest detail.

The most common symbols are:

• designations of plants, factories and mills;
• mines and adits;
• mining sites;
• salt developments;
• peat developments;
• warehouses;
• gas stations.

Topographic signs for schoolchildren, indicating industrial, agricultural and socio-cultural objects

Airfields and airports are indicated by a sign in the shape of an airplane. Power plants are designated by the abbreviation “el. Art." or cross.

Sociocultural objects

Conventional signs, which belong to this group, denote a variety of cultural sites, educational institutions, administrative bodies and governing bodies. Marked on site plans and topographic maps sociocultural objects help to understand how developed the region being described is.

These signs can be very useful for tourists. The signs of this group will be useful for schoolchildren to perform various tasks in geography lessons: determining the distance from one object to another, the ability to find on plans necessary objects and correctly recognize the meaning.

Railroads, highways and dirt roads

Topographical signs are very important for schoolchildren from the Infrastructure group. First of all, because it is the various road designations that are the most common topographical signs on school plans. It is important to be able to distinguish between a railroad sign and a highway sign.

Topographic signs for schoolchildren indicating roads

There are many designations for roadside objects - stations, stops, terminals and other things. Topographic designations exist for both dirt roads and forest paths. It is important for school students to learn to distinguish different types of roads and highways from each other, then there will be no problems with reading area plans.

One of the most common signs in topography is “hiking trails.” Often in lessons, students are asked to determine where the path is directed and to correctly describe its location. To cope with such tasks, it is essential for schoolchildren to be able to distinguish the signs indicating infrastructure.

Rivers, lakes, canals, etc.

Hydrography on terrain plans occupies a separate importance. The number of hydrographic signs is very large. Only one sign, “tidal strip,” has 3 varieties and, naturally, each strip is depicted differently.

All hydrographic signs are indicated in blue.

Hydrographic signs help to characterize the area on the map. Using the designations, you can determine how wet a given area is, whether there are sufficient water resources, and whether the area is susceptible or not susceptible to flooding in certain seasons.

The most common signs are:

• "spring";
• "river";
• "Creek";
• "swamp";
• "well";
• "water pipelines".

But hydrographic symbols also include the following signs:

• "dam";
• "water pipes";
• "pier";
• "berth";
• "reefs";
• "lighthouse";
• "glowing buoy"

Topographic signs for schoolchildren indicating water bodies

When creating a topographic plan of water spaces, the designations “algae”, “places of accumulation of fin”, “tidal currents” are often used.

High and low tides are indicated by a thin arrow. If the arrow does not have “feathers” (notches on the end), then it indicates low tide. If the arrow has notches, it indicates high tide and the more notches, the more water arrives during the tide.

Important hydrographic symbols are isobaths. Isobaths are continuous lines indicating a certain depth at a given location. Using isobaths you can determine how quickly the depth of a reservoir changes.

Terrain

The most important relief marks are horizontal lines connecting points of the same height - isolines. Small notches are depicted on the isolines.

By their direction you can determine whether a hill or a depression is depicted. When depicting a hill, the notches are positioned upward, and when depicting a recess, they are positioned downward.

Topographic signs for schoolchildren indicating relief

Signs indicating relief are indicated in brown. Volcanoes and craters are indicated by black stars.

Soils and flora

Vegetation cover and soils are integral symbols of a topographic map depicting plains or forests. The type of forest growing in a given area is indicated on a colorful green print.

There are 2 signs: spruce and deciduous tree. Where there are coniferous forests, spruce is used as a designation, and where there are deciduous forests, a tree is used. In a mixed forest, both signs are placed side by side. Often, numerical indicators are also placed next to these icons, which indicate the density of the forest.

Topographic signs for schoolchildren indicating vegetation and soils

Ground marks mainly contain information about the predominant content of sand, rock, pebbles, salts, and clay in a given area. Also, ground marks may indicate a bumpy surface.

Topographic signs included in the school curriculum are the most common and most necessary for reading maps. Upon completion of studying topography, students should know the simplest relief and hydrographic symbols.

Article format: Natalie Podolskaya

Video about topographic signs for schoolchildren

Topographic signs for schoolchildren:

Symbols of topographic maps provide complete information about the area. They are generally accepted and used for topographic maps and plans. Topographic maps are important material not only for tourists, but also for geodetic organizations, for authorities who are involved in area planning and transfer of site boundaries.

Knowledge about conventional signs helps not only to read the map correctly, but also to draw up detailed plans of the area, taking into account new objects that have appeared.

Topographic maps are a type of geographic map. They carry detailed information about the layout of the area, indicating the location of various technical and natural objects relative to each other.

Topographic maps vary in scope. All of them carry less or more detailed information about the area.

The map scale is indicated on the side or bottom of the map. It shows the ratio of sizes: indicated on the map to natural. Thus, the larger the denominator, the less detailed the material. Let's say a 1:10,000 map will have 100 meters in 1 centimeter. To find out the distance in meters between objects, use a ruler to measure the segment between two points and multiply by the second indicator.

1. The most detailed is the topographic plan of the area, its scale is 1:5,000 inclusive. It is not considered a map and is not as accurate, since it does not take into account the assumption that the earth is round. This somewhat distorts its information content, however, the plan is indispensable when depicting cultural, everyday and economic objects. In addition, the plan can also show micro-objects that are difficult to find on the map (for example, vegetation and soil, the contours of which are too small to be depicted in other materials).
2. Topographic maps at scales of 1:10,000 and 1:25,000 are considered the most detailed among maps. They are used for household needs. They depict populated areas, industrial and agricultural facilities, roads, hydrographic networks, swamps, fences, boundaries, etc. Such maps are most often used to obtain information about objects in areas that do not have significant forest cover. They depict business objects most reliably.
3. Maps with scales of 1:50,000 and 1:100,000 are less detailed. They schematically depict the contours of forests and other large objects, the image of which does not require much detail. Such maps are convenient to use for air navigation, drawing up road routes and so on.
4. Less detailed maps are used for military purposes to carry out assigned tasks for planning various operations.
5. Maps with a scale of up to 1:1,000,000 allow you to correctly assess the overall picture of the area.

Having decided on the task at hand, the choice of material seems absolutely not challenging task. Depending on how detailed information about the area is needed, the required map scale is selected.

Working with a topographic map requires a clear knowledge of the schematic designation of the depicted objects.

Types of symbols:

• areal (scale) - for large objects (forest, meadow, lake), their sizes can be easily measured on a map, correlated with scale and obtained the necessary information about depth, length, area;
• linear - for extended geographical objects, the width of which cannot be indicated, are drawn in the form of a line corresponding to the scale in order to correctly display the length of the object (road, power strip);
• off-scale - they are used to designate strategically important objects, without which the map will be incomplete, but in a rather conventional size (bridge, well, individual tree);
• explanatory - characterizing an object, for example, the depth of a river, the height of a slope, a tree that indicates the type of forest;
• depicting landscape components: relief, rocks and stones, hydrographic objects, vegetation, artificial structures;
• special - applied to maps for individual sectors of the economy (meteorological, military signs).

The designations of topographic maps in certain cases, especially for certain groups of objects, allow for some conventions:

• the main information conveyed by the image of a populated area is the density of buildings and the location of the boundaries of the object; for this it is not necessary to mark every building, you can limit yourself to the main streets, intersections and important buildings;
• the symbols of a group of homogeneous objects allow the depiction of only the outermost of them;
• when drawing a line of roads, it is necessary to indicate their middle, which must correspond to the situation on the ground, and the width of the message object itself should not be displayed;
• strategically important objects such as factories and factories are designated at the site where the main building or factory chimney is located.

By correctly placing signs on the map, you can get a detailed idea of ​​the relative position of objects on the ground, the distance between them, their heights, depths and other important information.

The map must be objective and this requirement includes the following provisions:

• correctly selected standard symbols, if this special card, then the designations must also be generally known in a certain area;
• correct representation of line elements;
• one card must be drawn in one image style;
• micro-objects must also be marked exactly; if there is a certain number of such objects of the same size in the area, they must all be marked with the same sign on the map;
• the color indicators of the elements of the relief forms must be maintained correctly - heights and lowlands are often depicted with paints, next to the map there should be a scale that shows what height on the terrain a particular color corresponds to.

Symbols of topographic maps and plans are drawn in accordance with uniform rules.

So:

1. Object sizes are displayed in millimeters. These signatures are usually located to the left of the symbols. For one object, two numerical indicators are given, indicating height and width. If these parameters match, one signature is allowed. For round objects their diameter is indicated, for star-shaped signs - the diameter of the circumscribed circle. For an equilateral triangle, the parameter for its height is given.
2. The thickness of the lines should correspond to the scale of the map. The main objects of plans and detailed maps (factories, mills, bridges, locks) are marked with lines of 0.2–0.25 mm, the same designations on small-scale maps from 1:50,000 - with lines of 0.2 mm. The lines indicating secondary characters have a thickness of 0.08–0.1 mm. On plans and large-scale maps, signs may be enlarged by one third.
3. The symbols of topographic maps must be clear and readable, the spaces between inscriptions must be at least 0.2–0.3 mm. Strategically important objects can be slightly increased in size.

Separate requirements are put forward for the color scheme.

Thus, the background color should ensure good readability, and symbols are indicated by the following colors:

• green - designations of glaciers, eternal snow, swamps, salt marshes, intersections of coordinate lines and hydrography;
• brown – landforms;
• blue – water bodies;
• pink – highway interline clearances;
• red or brown - some signs of vegetation;
• black – shading and all signs.

1. Objects indicated by off-scale symbols on topographic maps and plans must correspond to their location on the ground. To do this, they need to be placed according to certain rules.

The position on the ground corresponds to:

• the center of the sign of objects of regular shape (round, square, triangular) on the plan;
• the middle of the base of the symbol - for perspective displays of objects (lighthouses, rocks);
• vertices of the designation angle - for icons with an element of right angles (tree, pillar);
• the middle of the bottom line of the sign is for designations in the form of a combination of figures (towers, chapels, towers).

Knowledge of the correct placement and application of signs will help you correctly draw up a topographic map or site plan, making it understandable to other users.

The designation of groups of objects by symbols must occur in accordance with the rules below.

1. Geodetic points. These objects should be indicated in as much detail as possible. Marking the centers of points is applied exactly to the centimeter. If the point is located on an elevated area, it is necessary to note the height of the mound or mound. When drawing the boundaries of land surveys, which are marked on the ground with pillars and numbered, the numbering must also be displayed on the map.
2. Buildings and their parts. The outlines of buildings must be mapped in accordance with the structure's layout and dimensions. Multi-storey and historically important buildings are depicted in most detail. The number of floors is indicated starting from two floors. If a building has an orientation tower, it must also be displayed on the map.

Small buildings, such as pavilions, cellars, building elements, are displayed at the request of the customer and only on detailed maps. The numbering of buildings is reproduced only on large maps. Additionally, letters can indicate the materials from which the building is constructed, its purpose, and fire resistance.

Conventional signs usually identify buildings under construction or dilapidated, cultural and religious buildings. Objects on the map must be placed exactly as in reality.

In general, the detail and detail of the description of the characteristics depends on the purpose of drawing up the map and is negotiated by the customer and the contractor.

1. Industrial facilities. The number of floors in buildings does not matter. More important objects are administrative buildings and pipes. For pipes over 50 meters, it is necessary to indicate their actual height.

At enterprises that have mines and extract minerals, it is customary to designate objects located on the surface. Mapping of underground routes is carried out in agreement with the customer, indicating working and non-working branches. For quarries, a numerical designation of their depth is required.

1. Railways are shown with their gauge. Inactive roads must also be marked on maps. For electrified roads and tram tracks, a power line must be displayed nearby.

The map shows the designation of road slopes, embankments and their heights, slopes, tunnels and their characteristics. Dead ends, turning circles and road ends must be marked.

Highways are marked with a certain sign, which depends on the surface. The roadway must be marked with a line.

1. Hydrographic objects are usually divided into three groups:

• permanent;
• indefinite - existing all the time, but whose outlines often change;
• unstable - changing depending on the season, but with a pronounced source and direction of the channel.

Permanent bodies of water are depicted by solid lines, the rest - by dash-dotted lines.

1. Relief. When depicting the terrain, horizontal lines or contour lines are used indicating the heights of individual ledges. Moreover, lowlands and elevations are depicted in a similar way, using strokes: if they go outward, then an elevation is depicted, if inward, it is a depression, beam or lowland. In addition, if the contour lines are close to each other, the slope is considered steep; if it is far away, it is gentle.

A good topographic map should be extremely accurate, objective, complete, reliable and clearly indicate the contours of objects. When drawing up a map, it is necessary to take into account the customer's requirements.

Depending on the purposes for which the topographic map is intended, some simplifications or minor distortions of minor objects are allowed, but the general requirements must be met.

Topic 8. CARTOGRAPHICAL SYMBOLS

8.1. CLASSIFICATION OF CONVENTIONAL SIGNS

On maps and plans, the image of terrain objects (situations) is presented in cartographic symbols. Cartographic symbols - a system of symbolic graphic notations used to depict various objects and phenomena, their qualitative and quantitative characteristics on maps. Symbols are sometimes also called "map legend".
For ease of reading and memorization, many symbols have outlines that resemble the top or side view of the local objects they depict. For example, symbols of factories, oil rigs, free-standing trees, bridges are similar in shape to the appearance of the listed local objects.
Cartographic symbols are usually divided into scale (contour), non-scale and explanatory (Fig. 8.1). In some textbooks, linear symbols are classified as a separate group.

Rice. 8.1. Types of symbols

Large-scale (contour) signs are conventional signs used to fill the areas of objects expressed on the scale of a plan or map. From a plan or map, using such a sign, you can determine not only the location of the object, but its size and outline.
The boundaries of area objects on the plan can be depicted with solid lines of different colors: black (buildings and structures, fences, roads, etc.), blue (reservoirs, rivers, lakes), brown (natural landforms), light pink (streets and areas in populated areas), etc. The dotted line is used for the boundaries of agricultural and natural land in the area, the boundaries of embankments and excavations near roads. The boundaries of clearings, tunnels and some structures are indicated by a simple dotted line. The fill characters inside the outline are arranged in a specific order.
Linear symbols(a type of large-scale symbols) are used when depicting linear objects - roads, power lines, borders, etc. The location and planned outline of the axis of a linear object are depicted accurately on the map, but their width is significantly exaggerated. For example, a highway symbol on maps at a scale of 1:100,000 exaggerates its width by 8 to 10 times.
If an object on a plan (map) cannot be expressed by a scale symbol due to its smallness, then off-scale symbol, for example, a boundary sign, a separately growing tree, a kilometer pole, etc. The exact position of an object on the ground is shown main point off-scale symbol. The main point is:

• for signs of symmetrical shape - in the center of the figure (Fig. 8.2);
• for signs with a wide base - in the middle of the base (Fig. 8.3);
• for signs that have a base in the form of a right angle, at the apex of the angle (Fig. 8.4);
• for signs that are a combination of several figures, in the center of the lower figure (Fig. 8.5).

Rice. 8.2. Symmetrical signs
1 - points of the geodetic network; 2 - points of the survey network, fixed on the ground by centers; 3 - astronomical points; 4 - churches; 5 - plants, factories and mills without pipes; 6 - power plants; 7 - water mills and sawmills; 8 - fuel warehouses and gas tanks; 9 - active mines and adits; 10 - oil and gas wells without derricks

Rice. 8.3. Wide base signs
1 - factory and factory pipes; 2 - waste heaps; 3 - telegraph and radiotelegraph offices and departments, telephone exchanges; 4 - meteorological stations; 5 - semaphores and traffic lights; 6 - monuments, monuments, mass graves, tours and stone pillars more than 1 m high; 7 - Buddhist monasteries; 8 - separately lying stones

Rice. 8.4. Signs with a base in the form of a right angle
1 - wind engines; 2 - gas stations and gas stations; 3 - windmills; 4 - permanent river signaling signs;
5 - free-standing deciduous trees; 6 - free-standing coniferous trees

Rice. 8.5. Signs that are a combination of several figures
1 - plants, factories and mills with pipes; 2 - transformer booths; 3 - radio stations and television centers; 4 - oil and gas rigs; 5 - tower-type structures; 6 - chapels; 7 - mosques; 8 - radio masts and television masts; 9 - lime kilns and charcoal; 10 - mazars, suborgans (religious buildings)

Objects expressed by off-scale symbols serve as good landmarks on the ground.
Explanatory symbols (Fig. 8.6, 8.7) are used in combination with large-scale and non-scale; they serve to further characterize local items and their varieties. For example, an image of a coniferous or deciduous tree in combination with a conventional sign of a forest shows the dominant tree species in it, an arrow on a river indicates the direction of its flow, transverse strokes on a symbol railway show the number of paths.

Rice. 8.6. Explanatory symbols of a bridge, highway, river

Rice. 8.7. Characteristics of forest stands
In the numerator of the fraction - the average height of trees in meters, in the denominator - the average thickness of trunks, to the right of the fraction - the average distance between trees

The maps contain signatures of the proper names of settlements, rivers, lakes, mountains, forests and other objects, as well as explanatory signatures in the form of alphabetic and numerical designations. They allow us to obtain additional information about the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of local objects and relief. Lettered explanatory signatures are most often given in abbreviated form according to the established list of conventional abbreviations.
For a more visual representation of the terrain on maps, each group of symbols related to the same type of terrain elements (vegetation cover, hydrography, relief, etc.) is printed with paint of a certain color.

8.2. CONVENTIONAL SIGNS OF LOCAL OBJECTS

Settlements on topographic maps of scales 1:25,000 - 1:100,000 show everything (Fig. 8.8). Next to the image of the settlement, its name is signed: cities - in capital letters of a straight font, and a rural settlement - in lowercase letters of a smaller font. Under the name of a rural settlement, the number of houses is indicated (if known), and if they have district and village councils, their abbreviated signature (PC, CC).
The names of city and holiday villages are printed on maps in capital letters of italic font. When depicting settlements on maps, their external outlines and the nature of the layout are preserved, main and through passages, industrial enterprises, outstanding buildings and other buildings that have landmark significance are identified.
Wide streets and squares, depicted on the map scale, are shown with large-scale symbols in accordance with their actual size and configuration, other streets - with conventional out-of-scale symbols, main (main) streets are highlighted on the map with a wider clearance.

Rice. 8.8. Settlements

Populated areas are depicted in most detail on maps at scales of 1:25,000 and 1:50,000. Blocks with predominant fire-resistant and non-fire-resistant buildings are painted over with the appropriate color. As a rule, all buildings located on the outskirts of populated areas are shown.
The map at a scale of 1: 100,000 basically preserves the image of all main streets, industrial facilities and the most important objects that are landmarks. Individual buildings within blocks are shown only in settlements with very sparse buildings, for example, in dacha-type settlements.
When depicting all other settlements, buildings are combined into blocks and filled with black paint; the fire resistance of buildings on the 1:100,000 map is not highlighted.
Selected local items significant landmarks are plotted on the map most accurately. Such local objects include various towers and towers, mines and adits, wind turbines, churches and separate buildings, radio masts, monuments, individual trees, mounds, rock outcrops, etc. All of them, as a rule, are depicted on maps conventional out-of-scale signs, and some are accompanied by abbreviated explanatory captions. For example, signature check yy. with the sign of a mine means that the mine is coal.

Rice. 8.9. Selected local items

Road network on topographic maps it is depicted in full and detail. Railways are shown on maps and divided according to the number of tracks (single-, double- and triple-track), gauge (normal and narrow-gauge) and condition (operating, under construction and dismantled). Electrified railways are distinguished by special symbols. The number of tracks is indicated by dashes perpendicular to the axis of the conventional road sign: three dashes - three-track, two - double-track, one - single-track.
On railways they show stations, sidings, platforms, depots, track posts and booths, embankments, excavations, bridges, tunnels, semaphores and other structures. The proper names of the station (passings, platforms) are signed next to their symbols. If the station is located in or near a populated area and has the same name as it, then its signature is not given, but the name of this populated area is emphasized. The black rectangle inside the station symbol indicates the location of the station relative to the tracks: if the rectangle is located in the middle, then the tracks run on both sides of the station.

Rice. 8.10. Railway stations and structures

Symbols for platforms, checkpoints, booths and tunnels are accompanied by corresponding abbreviated captions ( pl., bl. p., B, tun.). Next to the symbol of the tunnel, in addition, its numerical characteristic is placed in the form of a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the height and width, and the denominator - the length of the tunnel in meters.
Road And ground roads When depicted on maps, they are divided into paved and unpaved roads. Paved roads include freeways, improved highways, highways, and improved unpaved roads. Topographic maps show all paved roads in the area. The width and surface material of motorways and highways are indicated directly on their symbols. For example, on the highway the signature 8(12)A means: 8 - width of the covered part of the road in meters; 12 - width of the road from ditch to ditch; A- coating material (asphalt). On improved dirt roads, usually only a label is given for the width of the road from ditch to ditch. Freeways, improved highways, and highways are highlighted in orange on maps, improved dirt roads - yellow or orange.

Figure 8.11. Highways and dirt roads

Topographic maps show unpaved dirt (country) roads, field and forest roads, caravan routes, trails and winter roads. If there is a dense network of roads of a higher class, some secondary roads (field, forest, dirt) on maps of scales 1:200,000, 1:100,000, and sometimes 1:50,000 may not be shown.
Sections of dirt roads passing through wetlands, lined with bundles of brushwood (fascines) on wooden beds and then covered with a layer of earth or sand, are called fascines sections of roads. If on such sections of roads, instead of fascines, a flooring of logs (poles) or simply an embankment of earth (stones) is made, then they are called ruts and rowings, respectively. Fascinal sections of roads, roads and boats are indicated on maps by dashes perpendicular to the conventional sign of the road.
On highways and dirt roads they show bridges, pipes, embankments, excavations, tree plantings, kilometer posts and passes (in mountainous areas).
Bridges depicted on maps with symbols of different designs depending on the material (metal, reinforced concrete, stone and wood); In this case, two-tier bridges, as well as drawbridges and drawbridges, are distinguished. Bridges on floating supports are distinguished by a special symbol. Next to the symbols of bridges with a length of 3 m or more, and located on roads (except for highways and improved highways), their numerical characteristics are signed in the form of a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the length and width of the bridge in meters, and the denominator - the load capacity in tons Before the fraction, indicate the material from which the bridge is built, as well as the height of the bridge above the water level in meters (on navigable rivers). For example, the signature next to the bridge symbol (Fig. 8.12) means that the bridge is made of stone (material of construction), the numerator is the length and width of the roadway in meters, the denominator is the load capacity in tons.

Rice. 8.12. Overpass over the railway

When designating bridges on highways and improved highways, only their length and width are given. Characteristics of bridges less than 3 m long are not given.

8.3. HYDROGRAPHY (WATER BODIES)

Topographic maps show the coastal part of the seas, lakes, rivers, canals (ditches), streams, wells, springs, ponds and other bodies of water. Their names are written next to them. The larger the map scale, the more detailed water bodies are depicted.
Lakes, ponds and other bodies of water shown on maps if their area is 1 mm2 or more on the map scale. Smaller bodies of water are shown only in arid and desert areas, as well as in cases where they serve as reliable landmarks.

Rice. 8.13. Hydrography

Rivers, streams, canals and main ditches Topographic maps show everything. It has been established that on maps of scales 1:25,000 and 1:50,000, rivers up to 5 m wide, and on maps of scale 1:100,000 - up to 10 m are indicated by one line, wider rivers - by two lines. Channels and ditches with a width of 3 m or more are depicted by two lines, and those less than 3 m wide - by one.
Width and depth of rivers (channels) in meters is written as a fraction: the numerator is the width, the denominator is the depth and nature of the bottom soil. Such signatures are placed in several places along the river (canal).
River flow speed (m/s), represented by two lines, point in the middle of the arrow showing the direction of the flow. On rivers and lakes, the height of the water level during low-water periods in relation to sea level (water edge marks) is also indicated.
Shown on rivers and canals dams, gateways, ferries (transportation), fords and give the corresponding characteristics.
Wells denoted by blue circles next to which a letter is placed TO or signature art. To. (artesian well).
Ground water pipelines are shown by solid blue lines with dots (every 8 mm), and underground ones by broken lines.
To make it easier to find and select water supply sources on the map in steppe and desert areas, the main wells are marked with a larger symbol. In addition, if there is data, an explanatory signature of the ground level mark is given to the left of the symbol of the well, and to the right - the depth of the well in meters and the filling rate in liters per hour.

8.4. SOIL AND VEGETATION COVER

Soil -vegetable cover are usually depicted on maps with large-scale symbols. These include conventional signs for forests, shrubs, gardens, parks, meadows, swamps and salt marshes, as well as conventional signs depicting the nature of the soil cover: sand, rocky surface, pebbles, etc. When designating soil and vegetation cover, a combination of conventional symbols is often used signs. For example, in order to show a swampy meadow with bushes, the area occupied by the meadow is marked with a contour, inside which the symbols of swamp, meadow and bushes are placed.
The contours of areas covered with forests and shrubs, as well as the contours of swamps and meadows, are indicated on maps by dotted lines. If the boundary of a forest, garden or other land is a linear local object (ditch, fence, road), then in this case the symbol of a linear local object replaces the dotted line.
Forest, bushes. The area of ​​the forest inside the contour is painted over with green paint. The tree species is shown with the icon deciduous, coniferous, or a combination of both when the forest is mixed. If there is data on the height, thickness of trees and density of the forest, its characteristics are indicated with explanatory captions and numbers. For example, the caption indicates that coniferous trees (pine) predominate in this forest, their average height is 25 m, the average thickness is 30 cm, the average distance between tree trunks is 4 m. When depicting clearings on a map, their width is indicated in meters.

Rice. 8.14. Forests

Rice. 8.15. Shrubs

Areas covered forest undergrowth(height up to 4 m), with continuous bushes, forest nurseries inside the contour on the map are filled with appropriate symbols and painted over with pale green paint. In areas of continuous shrubs, if data is available, the type of shrub is shown with special symbols and its average height in meters is indicated.
Swamps are depicted on maps with horizontal blue shading, dividing them according to the degree of passability on foot into passable (intermittent shading), difficult to pass and impassable (solid shading). Swamps with a depth of no more than 0.6 m are considered passable; their depth is usually not indicated on maps.

Rice. 8.16. Swamps

The depth of impassable and impassable swamps is written next to the vertical arrow indicating the location of the measurement. Difficult and impassable swamps are shown on maps with the same symbol.
Salt marshes on maps they are shown with vertical blue shading, dividing them into passable (intermittent shading) and impassable (solid shading).

On topographic maps, as their scale becomes smaller, homogeneous topographic symbols are combined into groups, the latter into one generalized symbol, etc. In general, the system of these symbols can be represented in the form of a truncated pyramid, at the base of which there are signs for topographic plans at a scale of 1:500, and at the top - for survey topographic maps at a scale of 1:1,000,000.

8.5. COLORS OF TOPOGRAPHICAL SIGNS

Colors topographic symbols are the same for maps of all scales. Line marks of lands and their contours, buildings, structures, local objects, strong points and boundaries are printed upon publication black color, relief elements - brown; reservoirs, watercourses, swamps and glaciers - blue(mirror of water - light blue); area of ​​trees and shrubs - green(dwarf forests, dwarf trees, shrubs, vineyards - light green), neighborhoods with fire-resistant buildings and highways - orange, neighborhoods with non-fire-resistant buildings and improved dirt roads - yellow.
Along with topographic symbols for topographic maps, conventional abbreviations of proper names political and administrative units (for example, Lugansk region - Lug.) and explanatory terms (for example, power plant - el.-st., southwestern - SW, working village - r.p.).

8.6. CARTOGRAPHIC FONT USED ON TOPOGRAPHIC PLANS AND MAPS

A font is a graphic design of letters and numbers. The fonts used on topographic maps and maps are called cartographic.

Depending on a number of graphic features, cartographic fonts are divided into groups:
- according to the inclination of the letters - straight (ordinary) and italic with inclinations to the right and left;
- according to the width of the letters - narrow, normal and wide;
- according to lightness - light, semi-bold and bold;
- by the presence of hooks.

On topographic maps and plans, two types of basic fonts are mainly used: topographic and outline italics (Fig. 8.17).

Rice. 8.17. Core fonts and cursive writing of numbers

Topographic (hair) font T-132 is used for signing rural settlements. It is drawn with a line thickness of 0.1-0.15 mm, all elements of the letters are thin hairlines.
Blank italics is used in the design of topographic maps, agricultural maps, land management maps, etc. On topographic maps, explanatory captions and characteristics are written in italics: astronomical points, ruins, plants, factories, stations, etc. The design of the letters has a pronounced oval shape. The thickness of all elements is the same: 0.1 - 0.2 mm.
Computing font or cursive writing of numbers, belongs to the group of cursive fonts. It was designed for recording in field journals and calculation sheets, since in geodesy many processes of field and office work were associated with recording the results of instrumental measurements and their mathematical processing (see Fig. 8.17).
Modern computer technologies provide a wide, almost unlimited selection of fonts different types, size, pattern and tilt.

8.7. INSTRUCTIONS ON TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS AND MAPS

In addition to conventional signs, topographic plans and maps contain various inscriptions. They constitute an important element of content, explain the objects depicted, indicate their qualitative and quantitative characteristics, and serve to obtain reference information.

According to their meaning, the inscriptions are:

• proper names of geographical objects (cities, rivers, lakes
  and etc.);
• part of a symbol (vegetable garden, arable land);
• conventional signs and proper names at the same time (signatures of names of cities, hydrographic objects, relief);
• explanatory captions (lake, mountain, etc.);
• explanatory text (convey information about the distinctive features of objects, specify their nature and purpose) (Fig. 8.18).

The inscriptions on the cards are made in various fonts with different letter patterns. Maps can use up to 15 different fonts. The letter design of each font has elements unique to that font, which is based on knowledge of the features of various fonts.
For groups of related objects, certain fonts are used. For example, roman fonts are used for the names of cities, italic fonts are used for the names of hydrographic objects, etc. Each inscription on the map should be clearly readable.
In the location of the inscriptions of proper names there are distinctive features. The names of settlements are located on the right side of the outline parallel to the north or south side of the map frame. This position is most desirable, but not always feasible. The names should not cover the images of other objects and should not be placed within the map frame, so it is necessary to place the names to the left, above and below the outline of the settlement.

Rice. 8.18. Examples of inscriptions on maps

The names of area objects are placed inside the contours so that the label is evenly distributed over the entire area of ​​the object. The name of the river is placed parallel to its bed. Depending on the width of the river, the inscription is placed inside or outside the contour. It is customary to sign large rivers several times: at their sources, at characteristic bends, at the confluence of rivers, etc. When one river flows into another, the name inscriptions are placed so that there is no doubt about the names of the rivers. Before the merger, the main river and its tributary are signed; after the merger, the name of the main river is required.
When placing inscriptions that are not horizontal, special attention is paid to their readability. The following rule is followed: if the elongated contour along which the inscription should be placed is located from northwest to southeast, then the inscription is placed from top to bottom, if the contour stretches from north-east to southwest, then the inscription is placed from bottom to top.
The names of seas and large lakes are placed inside the contours of the basins along a smooth curve, in the direction of their length and symmetrically to the shores. Inscriptions of small lakes are placed like inscriptions of settlements.
The names of mountains are placed, if possible, to the right of the top of the mountains and parallel to the southern or northern frame. The names of mountain ranges, sand formations and deserts are written in the direction of their extent.
Explanatory inscriptions are placed parallel to the north side of the frame.
Numerical characteristics are arranged depending on the nature of the information they convey. Number of houses in rural settlements, elevation marks earth's surface and water edges are signed parallel to the north or south side of the frame. The speed of the river flow, the width of the roads and their covering material are located along the axis of the object.
Labels should be placed in the least crowded places cartographic image, so that there is no doubt which object they refer to. Inscriptions should not cross river confluences, characteristic relief details, or images of objects that have landmark values.

Basic rules for constructing cartographic fonts: http://www.topogis.ru/oppks.html

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. What are symbols?
2. What types of symbols do you know?
3. What objects are depicted on maps with large-scale symbols?
4. What objects are depicted on maps using out-of-scale symbols?
5. What is the purpose of the main point of an out-of-scale symbol?
6. Where is the main point located on the off-scale symbol?
7. For what purposes are color schemes used on cards?
8. For what purposes are explanatory captions and digital symbols used on maps?

The symbols on a map or plan are a kind of their alphabet, by which they can be read, find out the nature of the area, the presence of certain objects, and evaluate the landscape. As a rule, symbols on a map convey common features with geographical objects that exist in reality. The ability to decipher cartographic symbols is indispensable when carrying out hiking trips, especially to distant and unfamiliar areas.

All objects indicated on the plan can be measured on a map scale to represent them actual sizes. Thus, the symbols on topographic map- this is its “legend”, their decoding for the purpose of further orientation on the terrain. Homogeneous objects are indicated by the same color or stroke.

All outlines of objects located on the map, according to the method of graphic representation, are divided into several types:

• Area
• Linear
• Spot

The first type consists of objects that occupy a large area on a topographic map, which are expressed by areas enclosed within boundaries in accordance with the scale of the map. These are objects such as lakes, forests, swamps, fields.

Line symbols are outlines in the form of lines and can be seen on a map scale along the length of an object. These are rivers, railways or roads, power lines, clearings, streams, etc.

Dotted outlines (out-of-scale) indicate small objects that cannot be expressed on the map scale. These can be either individual cities or trees, wells, pipes and other small individual objects.

Symbols are applied in order to have as complete an idea as possible about the specified area, but this does not mean that absolutely all the smallest details of a real individual area or city have been identified. The plan indicates only those objects that have great importance for the national economy, the Ministry of Emergency Situations, as well as military personnel.

Types of symbols on maps

Conventions used on military maps

To recognize map signs, you need to be able to decipher them. Conventional symbols are divided into scale, non-scale and explanatory.

• Scale symbols indicate local objects that can be expressed in size on the scale of a topographic map. Their graphic designation appears in the form of a small dotted line or thin line. The area inside the border is filled with conventional icons that correspond to the presence real objects in this area. Using scale marks on a map or plan, you can measure the area and dimensions of a real topographical object, as well as its outline.
• Off-scale symbols indicate objects that cannot be displayed on a plan scale, the size of which cannot be judged. These are some separate buildings, wells, towers, pipes, kilometer posts, etc. Out-of-scale symbols do not indicate the dimensions of an object located on the plan, so it is difficult to determine the actual width or length of a pipe, elevator or free-standing tree. The purpose of off-scale symbols is to accurately indicate a specific object, which is always important when orienting yourself while traveling in an unfamiliar area. The exact location of the indicated objects is carried out by the main point of the symbol: this can be the center or lower middle point of the figure, the vertex of a right angle, the lower center of the figure, the axis of the symbol.
• Explanatory signs serve to disclose information about scale and non-scale designations. They give additional characteristics to objects located on a plan or map, for example, indicating the direction of river flow with arrows, designating the forest type with special signs, the load capacity of the bridge, the nature of the road surface, the thickness and height of the trees in the forest.

Besides, topographic plans place on themselves other designations that serve as additional characteristics for some of the specified objects:

• Signatures

Some signatures are used in full, others in abbreviated form. The names of settlements, rivers and lakes are fully deciphered. Abbreviated labels are used to indicate more detailed characteristics of certain objects.

• Digital legend

They are used to indicate the width and length of rivers, roads and railways, transmission lines, the height of points above sea level, the depth of fords, etc. The standard map scale designation is always the same and depends only on the size of this scale (for example, 1:1000, 1:100, 1:25000, etc.).

In order to make it as easy as possible to navigate a map or plan, symbols are indicated in different colors. More than twenty different shades are used to distinguish even the smallest objects, from intensely colored areas to less vibrant ones. To make the map easy to read, there is a table at the bottom with a breakdown of the color codes. So, usually water bodies are indicated by blue, cyan, turquoise; forest objects in green; terrain – brown; city ​​blocks and small settlements – gray-olive; highways and highways - orange; state borders are purple, neutral area is black. Moreover, neighborhoods with fire-resistant buildings and structures are indicated in orange, and neighborhoods with non-fire-resistant structures and improved dirt roads are indicated in yellow.

The unified system of symbols for maps and site plans is based on the following provisions:

• Each graphic sign always corresponds to a specific type or phenomenon.
• Each sign has its own clear pattern.
• If the map and plan differ in scale, objects will not differ in their designation. The only difference will be in their sizes.
• Drawings of real terrain objects usually indicate an associative connection with it, therefore they reproduce a profile or appearance these objects.

To establish an associative connection between a sign and an object, there are 10 types of composition formation:

MUNICIPAL BUDGETARY INSTITUTION OF ADDITIONAL EDUCATION

"CENTER FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH TOURISM

AND EXCURSIONS" BRYANSK

LESSON SUMMARY ON THE TOPIC:

DEVELOPED: teacher d/o

Stasishina N.V.

Bryansk - 2014

Plan - outline

classes on the topic

"Conventional signs of topographic maps."

Purpose of the lesson: Give an idea of ​​the symbols of topographic maps.

Lesson objectives:

To familiarize students with the concept of conventional signs and its varieties;

Involve circle members in systematic sports activities;

Develop skills in teamwork and joint search for solutions;

Continue to promote the development of logical thinking, memory and

students' attention;

Equipment: 1. posters with symbols.

2. cards with test tasks.

Type of classes: Learning new material.

Literature: 1. Aleshin V.M. “Tourist topography” - Profizdat, 1987

2. Aleshin V.M., Serebrenikov A.V., “Tourist topography” - Profizdat, 1985

3. Vlasov A, Ngorny A. - “Tourism” (educational manual), M., Higher

school, 1977

4. Voronov A. - “Tourist’s Guide to Topography” - Krasnodar., Publishing House, 1973

6. Kuprin A., “Topography for everyone” - M., Nedra, 1976.

Lesson plan

Preparatory part. (3)

New topic explained: (45)

Presentation of new information.

3. Consolidation of the studied material. (8)

4. Summing up the lesson. (2)

5. Organizational moment. (2)

Progress of the lesson.

1. Preparatory part:

Students take their places at their desks, prepare writing materials

The teacher announces the topic, goals and objectives of the lesson, explains the requirements and lesson plan, and checks those present.

Note

to be ready for

occupation, uniform

clothes for those involved.

2. Explanation of a new topic:

Statement of new information:

Today in class we will look at a new topic:

"Conventional signs of topographic maps."

The map has many names printed in ordinary words, numbers, lines and many icons of different colors, sizes and shapes. This topographical symbols, which indicate local objects on the map.

What are conventional signs?

Conventional signs are symbols with the help of which the actual terrain is depicted on the map.

Topographers came up with special symbols so that they would be as similar as possible to the local objects themselves, and would correspond in size to them on the map scale. So, for example, a forest on topographic maps is depicted in green (after all, it is actually green); houses and other buildings are depicted as rectangles, since when viewed from above, they really almost always have the shape of rectangles; rivers, streams, lakes are depicted in blue, since water, reflecting the sky, also appears blue to us. But it is not always possible to accurately depict every local object on the map in terms of shape, color and size. Let's take, for example, a highway whose width is 20 m. On a hundred thousandth map (1 mm 100 m) such a road would have to be depicted with a line one-fifth of a millimeter thick, and on a map of scale 1:200000 this line would have to be drawn even further thinner - 0.1 mm. Small but important local objects are depicted on topographic maps with special out-of-scale signs, that is, such signs that do not correspond to the actual sizes of local objects, reduced according to the scale of a particular map. For example, a small spring on the river bank is depicted on the map as a blue circle with a diameter of a whole millimeter; In addition, highways and other major roads are colored on maps so that they, as they say, are striking to everyone who picks up a topographic map. For example, an asphalt highway is depicted on a map with a bright red line.

The symbols used in drawing up sports maps for orienteering competitions are somewhat different from topographical ones. Their main purpose is to give the athlete the information about the terrain that he needs when choosing a path of movement. These are signs showing the passability of forests, swamps, paths, etc. So, for ease of reading while running, on a sports map, unlike a topographic map, it is not the forest that is painted over, but the open space - fields, meadows, clearings in the forest. All topographical symbols can be divided into four types:

1) linear- these are roads, communication lines, power lines, streams, rivers, etc. That is, these are signs of such local objects that themselves have the form of long lines;

Write the topic on the board.

Students write down a new topic in their notebook.

2) curly- these are signs of towers, bridges, churches, ferries, power plants, individual buildings, etc.;

3) area - these are signs of forests, swamps, settlements, arable lands, meadows - that is, local objects that occupy significant areas of the earth's surface. Area signs consist of two

elements: contour and sign filling the contour;

4) explanatory- these are signs characterizing the forest, names of settlements, railway stations, rivers, lakes, mountains, etc.,

this is the width of the highway, the length, width and load-carrying capacity of bridges, the depth of fords on rivers, and the like.

Almost all linear and figured signs are non-scale, and area signs, as a rule, exactly correspond to the true sizes of local objects. It is easier to study and remember signs by getting to know them in groups, which are formed according to the type of local objects:

group No. 1 - roads and road structures;

group No. 2 - settlements, buildings;

group No. 3 - hydraulic network (that is, water on the ground);

group No. 4 - vegetation;

group No. 5 - relief;

Group No. 6 - explanatory and special tourist signs.

Group No. 1. Roads and road structures

This group includes eleven most important topographical signs.

All roads can be divided into three main types: railways for train traffic, highways and unpaved roads.

Highway are called roads that have hard artificialcovering - stone (cobblestones, paving stones), asphalt or concrete. The highway sign is out-of-scale. Every SCO signseine road an additional sign is given on the map- alphabetic digital characteristic consisting of three elements: numbers, one more number in brackets and a letter. The first number indicates the width of the highway surface in meters (that is, paved, pavednirovanny or stone-covered part of the highway), and in bracketsa figure is given indicating the width of the entire highway surface in meters, that is, together with the roadsides. The letter denotes the material with which the highway is covered: if it is asphalt, then the letter “A” is put, if it is concrete, then the letter “B”, and if the highway is covered with buskier or paving stones (i.e. stone), then the letter “K”.

Next type highways - ground, earthen roads without artificial surface. All dirt roads are divided into three types: simple dirt roads (they are also called field or forest roads), country roads, and so on.

called improved dirt roads (abbreviated as UGD). An improved dirt road is also an earthen road, but has a slightly convex shape for better water flow, ditches along the sides and a gravel or crushed stone fill compacted with a roller.

Nobody specially lays paths; they arise spontaneously.fight from the constant walking of people. In densely populated areasRarely can an entire network go in the same direction at oncepaths that then close, then again diverge. So manyIt is impossible to depict the number of paths on the map, so the groupthe trail is shown by one conditional trail in the corresponding directionlenition. Only long enough and permanently existing (sometimes called “centuries old”) trails are markedon large scale maps. The trail sign is almost like thisthe same as a simple dirt road - a thin black intermittentdashed line, but every strokehas a shorter length.

Railways previously iso flogged with two thin blackparallel lines, clearance between which was filled inalternating black and white shanecks. Now signis a continuousthick black line. Two koRotkikh stroke across the signa railway means that it ishas two tracks. If there is only one track, then one line is added. If the cross stroke has anothera small stroke parallel to the railway sign, then I know that Read that the road is electrified.

At the sign railway station A black rectangle inside a white rectangle is placed on the side of the railway where the station building (station building) is located.

Bridges. On simple dirt roads, as a rule, wooden bridges are built; on highways, improved dirt roads and on important country roads, bridges are most often made of concrete (stone). On railways there are large bridges across large rivers They are always metal, and across small rivers they are concrete. Topographic signs of bridges are shaped and non-scale signs.
Where a bridge sign is placed on the map, the road and river signs are broken (Fig. 37). An explanatory sign for bridges is the alphanumeric characteristics of the bridge. For example: DZ =
(24 - 5)/10. Here the letter “D” denotes the material from which the bridge is built - wood (if the bridge is concrete, the letter is written

"TO"). Coefficient 3 is the height of the bridge above the surface of the water in the river. In the numerator of the fraction, the first digit, 24, is the length of the bridge in meters, the second digit, 5, is its width in meters. In the denominator, the number 10 shows the load capacity of the bridge in tons, that is, what is the maximum weight of the machine the bridge is designed for design.

Bridges are often also made on hiking trails, but very small ones - only for pedestrians. Such bridges (residents often call them either treasures or lavas) are sometimes simply two logs laid over a river from bank to bank. The topographic sign for a pedestrian bridge is very simple.

Very often the roads intersect with small dry

ravines, hollows through which streams flow only in the spring, when the snow melts. When building a road, an embankment is made across the ravine, under which a concrete pipe is laid for

Students write down in their notebooks.

Symbols are sketched in a notebook

highway

Simple dirt road

Country road

Improved dirt road

Railway

Bridge

Pedestrian bridge

water flow. Such pipes have their own topographic sign.

Group No. 2. Settlements, individual buildings

This group contains fifteen most important topographical signs. The settlements themselves - villages, auls, hamlets, towns, cities - are complex formations, consisting of various buildings and structures. Therefore, there is no simple topographical sign of a populated area - it consists of topographical signs of various local objects that make up what is called a populated area.

Separate residential and non-residential buildings are depicted by an out-of-scale black rectangle. If the structure is very large in area, and the map is large-scale, then the structure is depicted as a black figure, similar in shape and size (on the map scale) to the structure itself. That is, this is already a large-scale sign. Often, at some distance from a village or town, there is a residential building with its own vegetable garden, orchard, and outbuildings.

For such a separate yard, or farm, there is a special topographic sign.

In populated areas, there are neighborhoods with a predominance of wooden (non-fire-resistant) and stone (fire-resistant) buildings. Topographic sign quarter of the village limited to thin black lines. Inside it, a background is either yellow (if wooden buildings predominate in the block) or orange (if fire-resistant stone buildings predominate in the block). On the background there are black rectangles - out-of-scale signs of individual houses, buildings or large-scale signs of individual large buildings. Next to the signs of some buildings their characteristics are given. For example: "SHK." - school, “SICK.” - hospital, “EL-ST.” - power plant, "SAN" - sanatorium.

The topographic fence sign is the thinnest black line on the map. This sign is often found on maps in the form of a broken closed line, which indicates some kind of fenced area.

If an industrial enterprise is depicted on a small-scale map, then it is necessary to use an out-of-scale sign of a plant (factory) with a pipe (meaning a tall pipe that can serve as a landmark visible at a fairly large distance) or without a pipe. Next to the sign is an abbreviated explanatory sign characterizing the type of product manufactured by the enterprise. For example: “brick” - brick factory, “flour.” - flour mill, “boom.” - paper mill, "sah." - sugar factory, etc.

If an industrial enterprise occupies a large area, then the usual large-scale signs are used, showing all or almost all buildings and structures on its territory: a fence, a factory building, workshops, warehouses, etc., while a half-blackened one is also placed here.

diagonally, an out-of-scale plant sign.

pipe under the road

Separate buildings

Khutor

Urban development

Plants and factories

Inside a populated area there may bechurch, monument or a monument cemetery . A cemetery can be small or large, with or without trees. PoeTherefore, to depict a cemetery, both large-scale andand an off-scale sign. On hikes and travels you can findeven in a deep forest there is a separate yard where he lives

forester and his family. Forester's house has its own topographic sign - an ordinary non-scale sign of a separate building with the inscription “forest.”

Important landmarks can be the various buildings basheared type- water towers, fire towers, silos. They are indicated by one out-of-scale sign, next to which an explanation is often given of what kind of tower it is.

Good landmarks are also high wooden towers, most often standing on the tops of hills, with an observation platform at the very top, where a ladder leads. These are the so-called triangulation points(they are called trigopunks for short). Next to the trigopoint sign on the map there is always some number that indicates the height of the base of the tower above the level of the Baltic Sea in meters and centimeters.

A sign resembling bricks stacked on top of each other - peat mining, that is, the place where peat is mined.

And the last of this group are very important local objects, the topographical signs of which you need to know, these are communication lines and power lines (power lines).

Communication lines are indicated on all maps, regardless of the nature of the connection, by a thin black line with black dots on it. The communication line sign is drawn on the map as the communication line itself goes on the ground.

Power lines(power lines) are on wooden poles or on metal and concrete supports. The power line sign consists of a thin black line on which dots or dashes with arrows are located at intervals of one centimeter.

If the power line is laid on wooden poles, then dots are placed, if on metal or concrete supports - short, thick lines.

Group No. 3. Hydrography

There are 8 basic signs in this group that you need to know.

While traveling on foot, tourists constantly “communicate” with the surface waters of the earth - they set up camp on the banks of rivers and lakes, lay routes along rivers, ford them, overcome swamps, ditches, and use springs to cook food over fires.

One of the main topographical signs of this group is river sign- can be both large-scale and non-scale (across the width of the river). The sign of a wide, large river consists of two elements - the outline of the coastlines of the river (as well as the coastline of the islands, if any), which is drawn with a thin blue line, and the fill sign - a blue background depicting the surface of the river, that is, the space occupied by water.

Church

monument

forester's house

tower

trig point

peat mining

Communication line

Power lines

big river

Out-of-scale sign small river or stream is a simple thin blue line, which, however, gradually thickens from source to mouth.

There are streams that “live” only in spring and early summer, and then the water in them disappears. This peresflowing streams and rivers. The sign of such streams and rivers is a thin blue, but not solid, but a broken line

Information about where the river flows and what the speed of the flow is will also be provided by a topographic map with an explanatory sign of hydrography - a black arrow showing the direction of the river flow, and numbers placed in the middle of the arrow and showing the flow speed in meters per second.

Sea, lake, pond are depicted in the same way: the contours of the banks are shown with a thin blue line, and the water mirror is shown with a blue background.

In densely populated areas, wells located in populated areas are shown only on very large-scale maps (terrain plans). Sign well- a blue circle with a blue dot in the center.

Water sources(springs, springs) are also shown on topographic maps only when they do not dry up and have a significant amount of water. The sign of the source (spring) is a blue circle. If a constant stream flows from a spring, it is shown with the appropriate sign. If the water soon goes back into the ground, the stream sign is not shown.

Swamps There are two types: passable and difficult to pass (or even completely impassable), through which it is dangerous to move and it is better to avoid it. Accordingly, there are two signs of swamps: short blue horizontal strokes, grouped in the shape of irregular rhombuses - this is a passable swamp, but solid horizontal blue strokes - an impassable swamp. The boundaries of the swamps are outlined by a black dotted line.

And the last sign of this group is ditches, the signs of which are thin blue lines. This sign is similar to the sign of an ordinary stream, but its shape is sharply different from it: the line of the stream is always smoothly winding, while the lines of ditches are broken with long, smooth sections without bends.

Group No. 4. Vegetation

This group includes 15 topographical signs, most of which are area and, therefore, large-scale signs.

The first sign is land boundaries, that is, areas occupied by one or another natural or artificial vegetation. Every forest has an edge, and every field, meadow, and swamp has an edge. These are their boundaries, which are shown on topographic maps with a small dotted black line. But the boundaries of the land are not always shown with a dotted line: if there is a road right along the edge of the forest or along the edge of the arable land, meadow, then the sign of this road replaces the boundary sign, that is, the road itself already delimits the forest from the field, the field from the meadow, the meadow from the swamp, etc. d. If a garden or cemetery is surrounded by a fence, then the fence is the boundary.

When carried out land boundaries with a dotted line (or some other sign) - that is, their contours are given, on both sides of the border a filling sign is given - a background and other icons that show what exactly the contour is occupied with, what kind of vegetation is in it.

Sign forests- green background. If the forest is old (as they say - ripe), then the background is made dark green, and if the forest is young (forest growth) - lightlo green. The same is depictedparks in populated areas.
It is important to know not only that this is a forest, but also what it is like - what kind of things are in itthe types of trees that grow, how densely they grow.
There are special explanatory signs for this
- characteristics tree stand. These signs representare images of small trees,signatures and numbers next to them. If in this forest(or parts of the forest) are dominated by coniferous trees,small Christmas trees are drawn on a green background, and if deciduous trees predominate - small birch trees, whose right sidethe crowns are made blackened. If the forest is mixed, both a Christmas tree andbirch tree Abbreviated signature on the leftsigns indicate what types of needlesTrees and deciduous trees predominate here.

The fraction to the right of these icons means the following: the numerator of the fraction is the average height of the trees in this forest in meters, the denominator is the average thickness of the trunks at the level of a person’s head in meters, and the coefficient behind the fraction is the average distance between the trees (that is, the density forests).

Found in forests clearings- long forest corridors. Such clearings are cut (cut) specifically so that the forest is better ventilated and illuminated by the sun. Most often, the clearings are made mutually perpendicular: some run from north to south, others cross them from west to east. Clearings come in different widths: from 2-3 to 10-12 m, and sometimes they are very wide - up to 50 meters or more. Such large clearings are made to lay gas pipelines, oil pipelines, highways and railways, and high-voltage power lines through forests.

Clearings divide the forest into blocks, and each forest block has its own number. At the intersections of the clearings there are quarter poles, on the edges of which these numbers are written in paint. Not every clearing has a road; there are very overgrown clearings, which are even more difficult to navigate than straight through the forest. But the topographic sign of the clearing exactly corresponds to the sign of a simple dirt road - a thin black dashed line. A number indicating its width in meters is also placed here.

For young growth forests, in addition to the light green background, an additional fill sign is used: small black circles go in rows along the background, but their rows are located at 45° to the map frames .

Orchards are also depicted with a green background with rows of small black circles, but here their rows go at 90° to the frames of the card.

Forest deforestation shown on a white background. The mark that fills the contour of the cutting is black vertical strokes arranged in a checkerboard pattern with a short black horizontal stroke at the lower end.

Sign woodlands also, as a rule, located on a white background in the form of black circles with a tail at the bottom, which is always directed to the east.

Large-scale topographic maps show separate groupsbushes in the form of a black circle with three thickened black dots along the outer edge. This is a non-scale sign. If the bushes occupy significant areas of the area, they are already shown as a contour (dotted line), which is filled inside with a light green background, and circles with three dots are scattered across the background in a random order.

Narrow strips of forest are depicted on maps without a green background as a chain of black circles. This is an out-of-scale forest belt sign. If the forest strip is wide enough for a given map scale, then it is depicted with a regular forest sign. There are also narrow strips of bushes (hedges). They are represented by an off-scale sign - a chain of small black circles alternating with thickened dots.

Along the roads there are often specially planted trees, forming a kind of green corridor along the road (alley). These are linings that are shown on maps as small black circles on the sides of the road.

Freestanding trees(not in the forest, but in the field), if they are large and have the significance of landmarks (that is, clearly visible from all sides at a sufficiently large distance), they are also indicated on topographic maps by their off-scale sign .

Meadows have their own sign: small black quotation marks are placed in a checkerboard pattern inside the contour delimiting the meadow. Meadows can occupy very large spaces and can stretch in narrow ribbons in the floodplains of rivers. Small clearings in the forest are also meadows. The sign of a passable swamp is almost always combined with the sign of a meadow, because such a swamp is always covered with grass.

Along the edges of the villages there are vegetable gardens The vegetable garden sign has in the recent past undergone major change: the old sign was oblique shading with solid and dashed lines in black, going in one direction or the other. New vegetable garden sign - gray background.

The last sign of this group, sign arable land,

This is a white background with a black dotted outline.

Group No. 5. Relief

The surface of our planet is very rarely flat. On any plain there are always at least small elevations and depressions: hills , mounds, depressions, ravines, pits, cliffs along river banks. All this taken together represents the topography of the area. Relief is a set of irregularities on the earth's surface. All irregularities can be easily divided into two types - convexity and concavity. Convexities are considered to be positive landforms, and concavities are considered negative landforms. Positive forms of relief include: mountain, hill (hillock), ridge, hill, mound, dune, sandy moving hill); to negative - basin, lowland, valley, gorge, ravine, beam, ravine, pit. Forms: reliefs always alternate in space: every positive form smoothly or abruptly turns into a negative one, and a negative one sharply or smoothly turns into a neighboring positive one.

It is customary to share flat terrain according to the nature of the relief by three type:lightly crossed, moderately crossed and strongly crossed terrain. The degree of ruggedness depends both on the frequency of alternation of convexities and concavities (ascents and descents), and on their height and steepness: where the “ruggedness” of the relief is stronger, that is, where ravines, hills, basins, gullies are more common, and where they are especially high (deep) and their slopes are steeper, the terrain is considered very rugged.

Each relief form has three parts (elements): the top or gold (for positive forms), the bottom (for negative forms), the bottom (for positive ones), the edge or edge (for negative ones) and the slopes or walls for both.

Slopes- a common element of both negative and positive relief forms. They are steep, steep (sharp) and gentle (smooth). Depending on the predominant slopes of the hills and lowlands in a given area, we say: there is a soft and smooth relief here, or there is a sharp, hard relief here.

There are two main ways to convey relief forms on maps: smooth, soft forms are depicted by so-called horizontal lines - thin brown lines, and sharp, hard forms - by a special line with jagged edges. These teeth, like any triangles, have a base and vertices. Where the tops of the teeth are directed, the slope descends there - it goes down almost a vertical cliff. To make it easy to distinguish a steep slope of natural origin from artificial cliffs on the map, jagged lines of cliffs are made in two colors - brown (natural cliffs along river valleys, ravines, etc.) and black (artificial embankments, dams, quarry slopes, etc. .). Next to the cliff signs there is a number indicating the length of the cliff in meters.

Pits and mounds can be naturalmi and artificial. They can bevery deep (high), but small in area, and then they have todepict out-of-scale on mapssigns. If they are significantny dimensions in area, then showing them indicated by scale marks (Fig. 74). The number next to the sign of the mound and pit also indicates their depth and height.

Embankments and excavations along the road are also depicted on maps as a jagged line, but in black color, since they are artificial structures. Where the teeth are directed with their sharp ends away from the railway or highway bed, the road goes along the embankment, and where they are directed on the contrary, towards the road bed, along the excavation. The numbers indicate the highest heights of these slopes.

At the sign career, As a rule, an abbreviated caption is given on the maps, specifying what exactly is being mined in this quarry.

More complex rigid forms of relief are ravines, which are formed in loose sedimentary rocks under the influence of soil erosion by streams of rainwater and during snowmelt. Ravines are a “living” phenomenon; they are born, grow and gradually die. While the ravine is “young” (it is called ravine), its slopes are very steep, but gradually they crumble - they flatten out, become overgrown with turf, bushes, the ravine stops growing and turns into beam (logs)well, a hollow). A ravine has a top, bottom and mouth. From one ravine to the sides can have side ravines with their tops - their called screwdrivers ravine But screwdrivers, in turn, canmultiply, forming intricate branching.

Small River

Drying river

Sea, lake

well

spring, key

clearings

Orchard

felling open forest

bushes

Casing

Meadows

Hard landforms

Pits and mounds

Embankments and excavations

Career

Two typical representatives of soft landforms - antipodes Hill(tubercle) and basin(depression). You cannot show them with a jagged line on the map, since their slopes are gentle and smooth.

If you horizontally “cut”, dissect the figure of a hill into even “slices”, then the entire slope of the hill will be surrounded by several closed lines of “cuts” - horizontals. And if you then draw these lines on paper, you will get a figure that gives an idea of ​​​​the relief (Fig. 78). You just need to use short strokes on the horizontal lines to show in which direction the slopes go down, since exactly the same figure will be obtained if you cut through the basin with horizontal planes. Such strokes, showing the direction down from the horizontal, are called berg strokes or slope indicators (in German, “berg” means mountain).

This method of depicting soft landforms on maps andIt's called the method of contour lines. Beyond the beginning of the secants of the relief horizonThe plane of the Baltic Sea level is adopted for the tal planes.The next cutting plane is drawn, for example, 10 m higherlevel of the Baltic Sea, after another 10 m in height there is a second cutting plane, then, 10 m above it, a third (already at a height30 m above sea level), etc. This distance (h) between planes cutting the relief is called the height of the relief section and can be different: 2.5 m, 5 m, 10 m, 20 m, etc.

Each cutting plane will give on the map its own closed relief section line - a horizontal, and all together they will give a complete drawing of contours - a general picture of the terrain. But since there will be a lot of contour lines on the map, in order not to get confused in them, to make it easier to distinguish and trace them, we decided to highlight some of the contour lines a little - to make every fifth one thicker. Then the contour lines on the map, as they say, are better readable. Thus, with a section height of, for example, 5 m, the thickened horizontal will be the horizontal located 25 m above the level of the Baltic Sea; the next thickened one is 50 m above sea level, etc.

In addition, on some horizontal lines, in convenient places, numbers are written in brown, which indicate the height of this horizontal line in meters above sea level, or, as is customary in topography to call this value, the horizontal mark. The very number of the mark of one or another horizontal line, in addition to the berg strokes, helps to understand in which direction the slope goes down: where this number has a bottom, that’s where the slope goes down, and where there’s a top, that’s where the slope goes up. In addition, marks are placed on the tops of mountains and hills. The side of the hill, which is steeper, will be depicted on the map as contours located close to each other, and the other, flat side of the hill, on the contrary, will be depicted as sparse contours.

Between the tops of two neighboring hills that have a common base, there is always a depression. This depression is called a saddle. And under the saddle on
On the slopes of hills, gullies and ravines most often appear - hard forms of relief are always difficult to combine with
soft.

Group No. 6. Special signs

They try to place the labels of names on maps so that they do not cover important objects, and at the same time, they still have to make, for example, a gap in the signs of the road network where the signature of a settlement or the name of some other place is superimposed on the road sign local subject.

Signatures of the names of settlements are always made horizontally (direction west - east) in different fonts - in some places the letters of the inscription are thicker and taller, in others they are thinner and have a slight slope. Through such a difference in font, certain information is communicated to the map reader: approximate
number of inhabitants in a locality. Where there are more residents, there is a larger signature. Under each name of a settlement there are numbers that indicate the number of buildings (yards) in this village or town. Next to these numbers there are letters in some places

“SS”, indicating that in this locality there is a village council, that is, a local government authority.

On their own homemade maps and diagrams, tourists often enter special symbols showing the route traveled by the tourist group and its direction, travel routes, places of overnight and day stays, places of daytime stops for lunch, and places of interest along the route.

3. Consolidation of the studied material.

1. What are symbols?

2. How many groups can topographic symbols be divided into?

3. List these groups?

4. List what is considered linear?

5. List what applies to areal types?

6. How many groups are topographic signs divided into?

4. Summing up the lesson.

The teacher draws conclusions, evaluates the activities of the students, and gives instructions for the next lesson.

5. Organizational moment.

The teacher tells further plans for the coming week.